2022年新概念英语第四册课文（精选文档）

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新概念英语第四册课文3篇

【篇一】新概念英语第四册课文

001 知识和进步

Lesson 22

Knowledge and Progress

知识和进步

The Development of Science

Sentence Analysis 句式分析

Why does the idea of progress loom so large in the modern world? Surely progress of a particular kind is actually taking place around us and is becoming more and more manifest.

Translation 译文

为什么进步这个概念在现代世界显得如此突出？无疑是因为有一种特殊的进步实际上正在我们周围发生，而且变得越来越明显。

Loom large

①to have a lot of importance or influence over someone or something (无被动):

The problems of crime and poverty loom large in many countries.

犯罪和贫困这两大问题在许多国家都很突出。

But by 2012 the threat posed by deficits will loom large.

但是到2012年,来自财政赤字方面的威胁将放大。

The question of who shoulders the blame will loom large Tuesday at the first set of congressional hearings on the disaster.

美国国会周二将就石油泄漏事故举行首次听证会。谁应该负责的问题将成为听证会的焦点。

Loom large

if something unpleasant or difficult looms large, it seems certain to happen:

The shadow of a greater economic crisis loom large in most of the developed countries in the world.

一场更大的经济危机的阴影笼罩着世界上大多数发达国家。

Nuclear issues also loom large on the Korean peninsula, where the Americans and the Chinese have worked together rather more closely.

核问题的阴云同样笼罩着朝鲜半岛,在这里美中的合作倒是较为紧密。

How to pay the months bills began to loom very large in their mind.

如何支付这个月的帐单这一问题在他的心里开始变得沉重起来。

002 Surely 相似词辨析

Surely 相似词辨析

Surely , Insure, Ensure, Assure :

Surely: without any doubt

Surely, the argument runs, Japan would produce new global gorillas of its own if its innovation system were more like that of the US.

确实,有人提出,如果日本的创新体系更像美国,它就会产生自己的新全球巨擘。

The question, however, is why it is only a mild recession, since precursors of a depression were surely present.

但问题是,既然萧条的先兆已显露无疑,为何这仅仅是一场温和的衰退呢?

Surely 相似词辨析

Insure: 给...投保:

The relevant details are to be left for you to decide, but we wish to insure the goods against All Risks.

有关细则留由你们决定,但是我们希望为这批货物投保一切险。

That is when the money would be useful, but we are temperamentally more inclined to insure against the tragic death of a child.

这就是钱发挥作用的时候,但我们从心理上更倾向于为防范孩子不幸身亡而买保险。

Surely 相似词辨析

Ensure : to make certain that something happens or is done 保证, 担保,确保:

"We"re working with the Bank of Thailand to ensure that our competitiveness is not inflated away," he said.

我们正在与泰国央行合作,确保我们的竞争力不被通胀带走。

We work closely with our Field Partners to ensure that you know exactly where your money is going.

我们与当地的伙伴密切合作以保证您确切掌握您捐助款的去向。

Surely 相似词辨析

Assure: to tell someone that something will definitely happen or is definitely true, especially in order to remove doubt about it使安心,确信,让...放心:

Before going to bed, she assured herself that the door was locked.

她确信门已锁好才去睡觉。

I assure you that this medicine will work wonders for your cold.

我向你保证这种药对你的感冒有奇效。

Surely 同义词辨析

Surely/ certainly:

A.表示客观论断，意为“无疑地”、“肯定地”、“确实地”，两者常可换用(注：通常用于被修饰词语之前)。

B.表示主观看法, 意为“想必”、“一定”、“我相信”等义，通常只用 surely。此时它表示既相信又不肯定或感到惊讶(有时几乎相当于一疑问句，书写时可用问号)，通常置于句首或句末，若主语是人称代词，有时也可紧跟在主语之后。

Manifest 鉴赏

Quite obvious and easy to notice or understand

非常显而易见的(adj):

Lest we forget, for all its manifest flaws, a liberal trading system has delivered hundred of millions of people from abject poverty.

不要忘记,尽管存在明显缺陷,但自由贸易体系仍让数亿人摆脱了一贫如洗的状态。

After a financial crisis, banks too become much more risk-averse, as is manifest in their willingness to lend only to the government.

在一场金融危机过后,银行的避险意识也明显提高——从它们只愿意贷款给政府,就能够看出这一点。

Manifest 鉴赏

Manifest in 体现于…(v.)

The abuses that such a system invites manifest in the lack of respect for the rights of its citizens.

这一体制所导致的权力滥用体现在该国缺乏对其公民权利的尊重。

Researchers are still debating at what age children experience depression of their own. It can manifest in different ways at different ages.

研究人员依然在争论,孩子在什么年龄段会出现抑郁症,因为抑郁症在不同年龄段的表现方式各不相同。

003 Sentence Analysis 句式分析

Sentence Analysis 句式分析

[Although mankind has undergone no general improvement in intelligence or morality], it has made extraordinary progress [in the accumulation of knowledge].

Translation 译文

虽然人类有智力和道德上没有得到普遍提高，但在知识积累方面却取得了巨大的进步。

Undergo 鉴赏

To be able to undertake such missions, SEALs undergo intense training and practice.

为了能够不辱使命,海豹突击队队员必须经受高强度的训练和实战演习。

Even if they have to undergo suffering as other people, their spiritual power is so strong that they do not feel much effect.

即使他们和别人一样必须受苦,但是他们的精神力量很强,不会受太多影响。

Agriculture will have to undergo a drastic change to meet the needs of the new situation. Otherwise, the country will starve.

农业必须进行改革,以满足新形势的需要。否则,国家将遭受饥荒。

Sentence Analysis 句式分析

Knowledge began to increase [as soon as the thoughts of one individual could be communicated to another] [by means of speech]. [With the invention of writing], a great advance was made, for knowledge could then be not only communicated but also stored.

Translation 译文

人一旦能用语言同别人交流思想，知识的积累便开始了。随着书写的发明，又迈进了一大步，因为这样一来，知识不仅能交流，而且能储存了。

Communicate 用法

①沟通, 交流:

High-tech company NEC has come up with a device that it says will allow users to communicate with people of different languages.

据发明这款眼镜的日本高科技公司NEC称,这款设备可以让使用者与说不同语言的人进行交流。

All languages change when cultures communicate with one another.

当不同文化互相沟通时,所有的语言都会发生变化。

Communicate 用法

②传递, 传达, 通报:

Copies of that report were communicated to each Member State of WIPO, of the Paris Union, or the Berne Union on July 31, 2011.

该报告已于2011年7月31日寄给WIPO、巴黎联盟或伯尔尼联盟的各成员国。

How should the performance of a company be communicated to the employees and shareholders?

公司业绩应该如何向员工和股东交待?

He also communicated to the Argentines.

他也向阿根廷方面通报了。

By means of 用法

China is willing to resolve any disputes through dialogues on the basis of equality and by means of bilateral consultation and negotiation.

中国愿意通过平等对话和以双边谈判的方式解决争议问题。

Philosophy is a battle against the bewitchment of our intelligence by means of language.

哲学是利用语言进行的与对智慧的迷惑作斗争的战斗。

Sentence Analysis 句式分析

Libraries made education possible, and education in its turn added to libraries: the growth of knowledge followed a kind of compound interest law, which was greatly enhanced by the invention of printing.

Translation 译文

藏书使教育成为可能，而教育反过来又丰富了藏书，因为知识的增长遵循着一种“滚雪球”的规律。印刷术的发明又大大提高了知识增长的速度。

001 In turn

In turn

Tosca says the company believes it has an obligation to help the local economy, which in turn helps the company.

托斯卡表示公司认为有义务帮助恢复当地的经济,反过来这对公司也有好处。

Really, a new generation may be inferior to the old and in turn an old generation may be outshone by the new. (From The Delights of Growing Old by Maurice Goudeket)

真是一代不如一代,一代胜过一代。

Add to

to make something such as a feeling or a quality greater or more extreme:

If you would make a man happy, do not add to his possessions but subtract from his desires. --- Seneca

如果你想使一个人快乐,不要增加他的财产,而是要减少他的欲望。

Pressure to meet parents" demands can add to the sense of crisis among today"s young adults,

为了实现父母期望而产生的压力增加了现在年轻人的危机感。

Compound interest

interest that is based both on an amount of money that someone has borrowed or saved and on the interest that has been added to it 复利:

And, at a time when we’re borrowing more than ever, most Americans can’t explain what compound interestis.

在借贷更多的款额时,大多数美国人甚至对复利都不知到底为何物。

Enhance 翻译技巧

to improve something, or to make it more attractive or more valuable加强:

A Honda spokeswoman said the company isn"t considering increasing exports from Thailand to enhance its competitiveness.

本田公司一位发言人说,公司未考虑增加从泰国的出口以增强竞争力。

Dr. Williams also states that other positive emotions like trust, forgiveness, and love seem to enhance physical health.

Williams博士也指出,其他那些积极地情绪,例如信任,原谅,爱,似乎可以改善身体的健康状况。

Sentence Analysis句式分析

All this was comparatively slow until, with the coming of science, the tempo was suddenly raised. Then knowledge began to be accumulated according to a systematic plan.

Translation译文

所有这些发展都比较缓慢，而随着科学的到来，增长的速度才突然加快。于是，知识便开始有系统有计划地积累起来。

Sentence Analysis句式分析

The trickle became a stream; the stream has now become a torrent. Moreover, as soon as new knowledge is acquired, it is now turned to practical account.

Translation译文

涓涓细流汇成小溪，小溪现已变成了奔腾的江河。而且，新知识一旦获得，便得到实际应用。

Turn to account鉴赏

To utilize something with high efficiency:

We must turnthis precious plot to good account.

我们必须充分利用这块宝地。

They will turnthe sun"s energy to accountfor heating homes.

他们将利用太阳能为住宅供暖。

Sentence Analysis句式分析

What is called "modern civilization" is not the result of a balanced development of all man"s nature. but of accumulated knowledge (applied to practical life). The problem now (facing humanity) is: What is going to be done with all this knowledge?

Translation译文

所谓“现代文明”并不是人的天性平衡发展的结果，而是积累起来的知识应用到实际生活中的结果。现在人类面临的问题是：用这些知识去做什么？

002 What is called…

What is called…

所谓…

New CEOs often arrive on the scene with what is called "a mandate for change".

新CEO们往往是带着所谓“改革使命”走马上任的。

What the ancients called a clever fighter is one who not only wins, but excels in winning with ease.

古之所谓善战者,胜于易胜者也。

In brief, Lydgate was what is called a successful man.

总之,利德盖特是我们所说的飞黄腾达的人。

Humanity

Humanity:

1. all the people who are living in the world人类

Give me a restless hour or two in bed and I can solve, to my own satisfaction, all the doubts of humanity. (from On Getting Off to Sleep by John Boynton Priestley)

只要我躺在床上有一两个小时睡不着觉,我就能令自己满意地解决人类一切的疑虑。

2. a kind and sympathetic attitude toward other people, especially when they are suffering in some way

仁爱;博爱;

Mencius encouraged the expression of compassion, humanity and human dignity to make for a truly "human" society.

孟子鼓励人们要有恻隐之心,并且提倡仁爱和人的尊严,以创造一个真正的“人”的社会。

Humanity

human:

1. a person

2. relating to people; showing normal human feelings and behavior, especially showing that you can be weak; relating to a person’s body

Sentence Analysis句式分析

As is so often pointed out, knowledge is a two-edged weapon which can be used equally for good or evil. It is now being used indifferently for both.

Translation译文

正像人们常常指出的，知识是一把双刃刀，可以用于造福，也可以用来为害。人们现在正漫不经心地把知识用于这两个方面。

003 As 作关系代词

As 作关系代词

As引导非限定性定语从句,作关系代词:

（1）、as引导的非限制性定语从句，对主句的内容起正面的作用，负面则应用which:

Mother gave him some money, aswas a pleasure to him．

母亲给他些钱，这使他很高兴。

Mother criticized him, whichmade him depressed．

母亲批评了他，这使他很沮丧.

As 作关系代词

（2）、强调成分不同。As强调主句内容，which强调从句内容。

Her speech was inspiring，aswe had expected．

正如我们所期盼的那样，她的发言非常鼓舞人心。

His scheme went up in smoke finally，whichmade him very frustrated．

他的计划落空了，这使他非常失落。

As 作关系代词

（3）、在非限制性定语从句中，谓语是系词be时，常用as作主语，而谓语是实义动词时，则用which作主语。

Ed is absent for class, asis often the case．

埃德又没来上课，他往往是这样。

People familiar with the matter say the investigation also includes auditors, which hadn"t previously been known.

知情人士说此次调查对象也包括审计方,这一点此前外界并不知情。

As 作关系代词

（4）、as引导的非限制性定语从句要与主句语义一致。如果主句为肯定句，从句用否定句，则一般用which引导。

Mr. Johnson is a attorney, asis clear from his manner．

约翰逊先生是位教师，这从他的举止可以看出来。

He has to work extra hours on every nights, whichhe doesn’t want．

他每天晚上都要加班，他不想这样。

Sentence Analysis句式分析

Could any spectacle, for instance, be more grimly whimsical than that of gunners using science to shatter men’s bodies while, close at hand, surgeons use it to restore them?

Translation译文

例如：炮兵利用科学毁坏人的身体、而外科医生就在附近用科学抢救被炮兵毁坏的人体，还有什么情景比这更可怕、更怪诞的吗？

Shatter鉴赏

to break suddenly into many small brittle pieces, or cause sth. to break in this way破碎;碎裂;粉碎

May break, you may shatter the vase, if your ill; but the scent of the roses will hang round it still. --- Thomas Moore

你可以把花瓶打破以至砸碎,但玫瑰的芬芳仍将悬浮在周围。

Such words simply shatter themselves on the hard fact.

这种言论在铁的事实面前碰得粉碎。

Opponents fear new taxes would shatter confidence in the real-estate market, leading to a bust that would damage the entire economy.

对此持反对意见的人士则担心新税项的推出可能会破坏地产市场的信心,进而可能伤害整个国家经济。

Sentence Analysis句式分析

We have to ask ourselves very seriously what will happen if this twofold use of knowledge, with its ever-increasing power, continues.

Translation译文

我们不得不严肃地问问我们自己：随着日益增长的知识的力量，如果我们继续利用知识的这种双重性，将会发生什么样的情况呢？

【篇二】新概念英语第四册课文

第一课
译文：
我们从书籍中可读到5，000年前近东发生的事情，那里的人最早学会了写字。但直到现在，世界上有些地方，人们还不会书写。他们保存历史的唯一方法是将历史当作传说讲述，由讲述人一代接一代地将史实描述为传奇故事口传下来。人类学家过去不清楚如今生活在太平洋诸岛上的波利尼亚人的祖先来在何方，当地人的传说却告诉人们：其中一部分是约在2,000年前从印度尼西亚迁来的。
但是，和我们相似的原始人生活的年代太久远了，因此，有关他们的传说即使有如今也失传了。于是，考古学家们既缺乏历史记载，又无口头传说来帮助他们弄清最早的“现代人”是从哪里来的。
然而，幸运的是，远古人用石头制作了工具，特别是用燧石，因为燧石较其他石头更容易成形。他们也可能用过木头和兽皮，但这类东西早已腐烂殆尽。石头是不会腐烂的。因此，尽管制造这些工具的人的骨头早已荡然无存，但远古时代的石头工具却保存了下来。
第二课
译文：
你可能会觉得奇怪，蜘蛛怎么会是我们的朋友呢？因为它们能消灭那么多的昆虫，其中包括一些人类的大敌，要不是人类受一些食虫动物的保护，昆虫就会使我们无法在地球上生活下去，昆虫会吞食我们的全部庄稼，杀死我们的成群的牛羊。我们要十分感谢那些吃昆虫的鸟和兽，然而把它们所杀死的昆虫全部加在一起也只相当于蜘蛛所消灭的一小部分。此外，蜘蛛不同于其他食虫动物，它们丝毫不危害我们和我们的财物。
许多人认为蜘蛛是昆虫，但它们不是昆虫，甚至与昆虫毫无关系。人们几乎一眼就能看出二者的差异，因为蜘蛛都是8条腿，而昆虫的腿从不超过6条。
有多少蜘蛛在为我们效力呢？一位研究蜘蛛的权威对英国南部一块草坪上的蜘蛛作了一次调查。他估计每英亩草坪里有225万多只蜘蛛。这就是说，在一个足球场上约600万只不同种类的蜘蛛。蜘蛛至少有半年在忙于吃昆虫，它们一年中消灭了多少昆虫，我们简直无法猜测，它们是吃不饱的动物，不满意一日三餐。据估计，在英国蜘蛛一年里所消灭昆虫的重量超过这个国家人口的总重量。
第三课
译文：
现代登山运动员总想找一条能够给他们带来运动乐趣的路线来攀登山峰。他们认为，道路愈艰险愈带劲儿。然而，在登山运动的初期，全然不是这种情况。早期登山者所寻找的是通往山顶的最方便的途径，因为顶峰特别是前人未曾到过的顶峰——才是他们寻求的目标。确实，在探险中他们经常遇到惊心动魄的困难和危险，而他们装备之简陋足以使现代登山者一想起来就胆战心惊。但是，他们并非故意寻求这种刺激，他们只有一个目标，唯一的目标——顶峰。
我们今天很难想象昔日的登山先驱们是多么艰苦。除了泽曼特和夏蒙尼等一两个很快出了名的地方外，阿尔卑斯山山区的小村几乎全是高山环抱、与世隔绝的穷山僻壤。那里的小客栈一般都很肮脏，而且跳蚤猖獗。食物是当地的干酪和通常存放了一年之久的面包，人们就着劣酒吞下这种食物。山谷里常常没有小客栈，登山者只好随遇而安。有时同当地牧师（他通常和他的教民一样穷）住在一起，有时同牧羊人或制乳酪的人住在一起。无论住在哪儿，情况都一样：肮脏、贫穷，极其不舒适。对于过惯了一顿饭吃了7道菜、睡亚麻细布床单的人来说，变换一下生活环境来到阿尔卑斯山山区，那一定是很艰难的。

第四课
译文：
俄罗斯最近报道了几个事例，有人能用手指看书识字和辨认颜色，甚至能透过厚实的门和墙看到东西。其中有一例谈到有一个名叫维拉.彼托洛娃的11岁学生。她的视力与常人一样，但她还能用皮肤的不同部位辨认东西，甚至看穿坚实的墙壁。是她父亲首先发现她这一功能的。一天，维拉走进父亲的办公室，偶然把手放在一个锁着的保险柜的门上。她突然问父亲为什么把这么多的旧报纸锁在柜子里，还说了报纸捆扎的情况。
维拉的特异功能引起了她家附近乌里扬诺夫斯克城一个科研单位的注意。4月里，俄罗斯卫生部一个特别委员会对她进行了一系列的测试。在这些测试中，她能隔着不透明的屏幕读报纸。更为奇怪的是，她把肘部在儿童玩的“罗托”纸牌上移动一下，便能说出印在纸牌上的数字和颜色。还有一次，她穿着长筒袜子和拖鞋，能用脚步识别出藏在地毯下面的一幅画的轮廓和颜色。其他实验表明，她的膝盖和双肩有类似的感觉能力，在所有这些实验中，维拉的双眼都是蒙着的。如果不蒙上双眼她的皮肤就不再具有识别物体的能力。这是千真万确的。同时还发现，尽管她能用手指识别东西，但她的手一旦弄湿，这种功能便会立刻消失。
第五课
译文：
人们对非洲一景的大猩猩可以说是略有所知，自相矛盾。有的人认为人们对它十分了解。百余年来，它被杀害，捕获并拘禁在动物园里。它的骨骼被制成标本，陈列在各地的自然历史博物馆里，强烈地吸引着无数科学家和富有幻想的人。它是恐怖片和早险故事书中常见的怪物，而且同我们祖先的历史有着明显的（虽然也许不是绝对科学的）联系。
可是事实是我们对大猩猩所知甚少。我们对处于野生状态的大猩猩从未拍过一次真正令人满意的照片，也没有一位动物学家，不管他多么勇敢，能在大猩猩栖息的不透阳光的密林里进行过仔细的持久的观察。美国博物学家CarlAKeley在19世纪20年代曾两次率领过考察队，现在他还长眠在他十分钟爱的大猩猩中间。即使是他也不能发现大猩猩究竟能活多久以及怎么死的和为什么死的，同样他也不能确定大猩猩家族确切的群居方式或者指出它们的智力极限。所有这一切及许多其他事情，同法国探险家DuChaillu在一个世纪前向文明世界描绘大猩猩时的情景一样，几乎依然是个谜。常常勾起喜马拉雅山登山者遐想的雪人，倒是几乎不那么令人难以捉摸。

第六课
译文：
人们总是在谈论“青年问题”。如果这个问题存在的话——请允许我对此持怀疑态度-那么，这个问题是由老年人而不是青年人造成的。让我们来认真研究一些基本事实：承认青年人和他们的长辈一样也是人。老年人和青年人只有一个区别：青年人有光辉灿烂的前景，而老年人的辉煌已成为过去。问题的症结恐怕就在这里。
我十几岁时，总感到自己年轻，有些事拿不准—我是一所大学里的新生，如果我当时真的被看成像一个问题那样有趣，我会感到很得意的。因为这至少使我得到了某种承认，这正是年轻人所热衷追求的。
我觉得年轻人令人振奋，无拘无束。他们既不追逐卑鄙的名利，也不贪图生活的舒适。他们不热衷于向上爬，也不一味追求物质享受。在我看来，所有这些使他们与生命和万物之源联系在了一起。从某种意义上讲，他们似乎是宇宙人，同我们这些凡夫俗子形成了强烈而鲜明的对照。每逢我遇到年轻人，脑子里就想到这些年轻人也许狂妄自负，举止无礼，傲慢放肆，愚昧无知，但我不会用应当尊重长者这一套陈词滥调来为我自己辩护，似乎年长就是受人尊敬的理由。我认为我和他们是平等的。如果我认为他们错了，我就以平等的身份和他们

争个明白。
第七课
当我听人们说体育运动可创造国家之间的友谊，还说各国民众若在足球场或板球场上交锋，就不愿在战场上残杀的时候，我总是惊愕不已。一个人即使不能从具体的事例（例如1936年地奥林匹克运动会）了解到国际运动比赛会导致疯狂的仇恨，也可以从常理中推断出结论。现在开展的体育运动几乎都是竞争性的。参加比赛就是为了取胜，如果不拼命去赢，比赛就没有什么意义了。在乡间的草坪上，当你随意组成两个队，并且不涉及任何地方情绪时，那才可能是单纯的为了娱乐和锻炼而进行比赛。可是一旦涉及到荣誉问题，一旦你想到你和某一团队会因为你输而丢脸时，那么最野蛮的争斗天性便会激发起来。即使是仅仅参加过学校足球赛的人也有种体会。在国际比赛中，体育简直是一场模拟战争。但是，要紧的还不是运动员的行为，而是观众的态度，以及观众身后各个国家的态度。面对着这些荒唐的比赛，参赛的各个国家会如痴如狂，甚至煞有介事地相信-至少在短期内如此-跑跑、跳跳、踢踢球是对一个民族品德素质的检验。

【篇三】新概念英语第四册课文

Lesson1
Wecanreadofthingsthathappened5,000yearsagointheNearEast,wherepeoplefirstlearnedtowrite.Buttherearesomepartsoftheworldwhereevennowpeoplecannotwrite.Theonlywaythattheycanpreservetheirhistoryistorecountitassagas--legendshandeddownfromonegenerationofstory-tellerstoanother.Theselegendsareusefulbecausetheycantellussomethingaboutmigrationsofpeoplewholivedlongago,butnonecouldwritedownwhattheydid.AnthropologistswonderedwheretheremoteancestorsofthePolynesianpeoplesnowlivinginthePacificIslandscamefrom.ThesagasofthesepeopleexplainthatsomeofthemcamefromIndonesiaabout2,000yearsago.
Butthefirstpeoplewhowerelikeourselveslivedsolongagothateventheirsagas,iftheyhadany,areforgotten.Soarchaeologistshaveneitherhistorynorlegendstohelpthemtofindoutwherethefirst"modernmen"camefrom.
Fortunately,however,ancientmenmadetoolsofstone,especiallyflint,becausethisiseasiertoshapethanotherkinds.Theymayalsohaveusedwoodandskins,butthesehaverottedaway.Stonedoesnotdecay,andsothetoolsoflongagohaveremainedwheneventhebonesofthemenwhomadethemhavedisappearedwithouttrace.
Lesson2
Why,youmaywonder,shouldspidersbeourfriends?Becausetheydestroysomanyinsects,andinsectsincludesomeofthegreatestenemiesofthehumanrace.Insectswouldmakeitimpossibleforustoliveintheworld;theywoulddevourallourcropsandkillourflocksandherds,ifitwerenotfortheprotectionwegetfrominsect-eatinganimals.Weowealottothebirdsandbeastswhoeatinsectsbutallofthemputtogetherkillonlyafractionofthenumberdestroyedbyspiders.Moreover,unlikesomeoftheotherinsecteaters,spidersneverdotheleastharmtousorourbelongings.
Spidersarenotinsects,asmanypeoplethink,norevennearlyrelatedtothem.Onecantellthedifferencealmostataglanceforaspideralwayshaseightlegsandaninsectnevermorethansix.Howmanyspidersareengagedinthisworkonourbehalf?OneauthorityonspidersmadeacensusofthespidersinagrassfieldinthesouthofEngland,andheestimatedthatthereweremorethan2,250,000inoneacre,thatissomethinglike6,000,000spidersofdifferentkindsonafootballpitch.Spidersarebusyforatleasthalftheyearinkillinginsects.Itisimpossibletomakemorethanthewildestguessathowmanytheykill,buttheyarehungrycreatures,notcontentwithonlythreemealsaday.IthasbeenestimatedthattheweightofalltheinsectsdestroyedbyspidersinBritaininoneyearwouldbegreaterthanthetotalweightofallthehumanbeingsinthecountry.
Lesson3
Modernalpiniststrytoclimbmountainsbyaroutewhichwillgivethemgoodsport,andthemoredifficultitis,themorehighlyitisregarded.Inthepioneeringdays,however,thiswasnotthecaseatall.Theearlyclimberswerelookingfortheeasiestwaytothetopbecausethesummitwastheprizetheysought,especiallyifithadneverbeenattainedbefore.Itistruethatduringtheirexplorationstheyoftenfaceddifficultiesanddangersofthemostperilousnature,equippedinamannerwhichwouldmakeamodernclimbershudderatthethought,buttheydidnotgooutoftheirwaytocourtsuchexcitement.Theyhadasingleaim,asolitarygoal--thetop!
Itishardforustorealizenowadayshowdifficultitwasforthepioneers.Exceptforoneortwo

placessuchasZermattandChamonix,whichhadrapidlybecomepopular,Alpinevillagestendedtobeimpoverishedsettlementscutofffromcivilizationbythehighmountains.Suchinnsastherewereweregenerallydirtyandflea-ridden;thefoodsimplylocalcheeseaccompaniedbybreadoftentwelvemonthsold,allwasheddownwithcoarsewine.Oftenavalleyboastednoinnatall,andclimbersfoundshelterwherevertheycould--sometimeswiththelocalpriest(whowasusuallyaspoorashisparishioners,sometimeswithshepherdsorcheese-makers.Invariablythebackgroundwasthesame:dirtandpoverty,andveryuncomfortable.Formenaccustomedtoeatingseven-coursedinnersandsleepingbetweenfinelinensheetsathome,thechangetotheAlpsmusthavebeenveryhardindeed.
Lesson4
IntheSovietUnionseveralcaseshavebeenreportedrecentlyofpeoplewhocanreadanddetectcolourswiththeirfingers,andevenseethroughsoliddoorsandwalls.Onecaseconcernsan"eleven-year-oldschoolgirl,VeraPetrova,whohasnormalvisionbutwhocanalsoperceivethingswithdifferentpartsofherskin,andthroughsolidwalls.Thisabilitywasfirstnoticedbyherfather.Onedayshecameintohisofficeandhappenedtoputherhandsonthedoorofalockedsafe.Suddenlysheaskedherfatherwhyhekeptsomanyoldnewspaperslockedawaythere,andevendescribedthewaytheyweredoneupinbundles.
Vera"scurioustalentwasbroughttothenoticeofascientificresearchinstituteinthetownofUIyanovsk,nearwhereshelives,andinAprilshewasgivenaseriesoftestsbyaspecialcommissionoftheMinistryofHealthoftheRussianFederalRepublic.Duringthesetestsshewasabletoreadanewspaperthroughanopaquescreenand,strangerstill,bymovingherelbowoverachild"sgameofLottoshewasabletodescribethefiguresandcoloursprintedonit;and,inanotherinstance,wearingstockingsandslippers,tomakeoutwithherfoottheoutlinesandcoloursofapicturehiddenunderacarpet.Otherexperimentsshowedthatherkneesandshouldershadasimilarsensitivity.DuringallthesetestsVerawasblindfold;and,indeed,exceptwhenblindfoldshelackedtheabilitytoperceivethingswithherskin.Itwasalsofoundthatalthoughshecouldperceivethingswithherfingersthisabilityceasedthemomentherhandswerewet.
Lesson5
ThegorillaissomethingofaparadoxintheAfricanscene.Onethinksoneknowshimverywell.Forahundredyearsormorehehasbeenkilled,captured,andimprisoned,inzoos.Hisboneshavebeenmountedinnaturalhistorymuseumseverywhere,andhehasalwaysexertedastrongfascinationuponscientistsandromanticsalike.Heisthestereotypedmonsterofthehorrorfilmsandtheadventurebooks,andanobvious(thoughnotperhapsstrictlyscientificlinkwithourancestralpast.
Yetthefactisweknowverylittleaboutgorillas.Noreallysatisfactoryphotographhaseverbeentakenofoneinawildstate,nozoologist,howeverintrepid,hasbeenabletokeeptheanimalundercloseandconstantobservationinthedarkjunglesinwhichhelives.CarlAkeley,theAmericannaturalist,ledtwoexpeditionsinthenineteen-twenties,andnowliesburiedamongtheanimalshelovedsowell.Butevenhewasunabletodiscoverhowlongthegorillalives,orhoworwhyitdies,norwasheabletodefinetheexactsocialpatternofthefamilygroups,orindicatethefinalextentoftheirintelligence.AllthisandmanyotherthingsremainalmostasmuchamysteryastheywerewhentheFrenchexplorerDuChaillufirstdescribedtheanimaltothecivilizedworldacentury

ago.TheAbominableSnowmanwhohauntstheimaginationofclimbersintheHimalayasishardlymoreelusive.
Lesson6
Peoplearealwaystalkingabout"theproblemofyouth".Ifthereisone—whichItakeleavetodoubt--thenitisolderpeoplewhocreateit,nottheyoungthemselves.Letusgetdowntofundamentalsandagreethattheyoungareafterallhumanbeings--peoplejustliketheirelders.Thereisonlyonedifferencebetweenanoldmanandayoungone:theyoungmanhasagloriousfuturebeforehimandtheoldonehasasplendidfuturebehindhim:andmaybethatiswheretherubis.
WhenIwasateenager,IfeltthatIwasjustyounganduncertain--thatIwasanewboyinahugeschool,andIwouldhavebeenverypleasedtoberegardedassomethingsointerestingasaproblem.Foronething,beingaproblemgivesyouacertainidentity,andthatisoneofthethingstheyoungarebusilyengagedinseeking.
Ifindyoungpeopleexciting.Theyhaveanairoffreedom,andtheyhavenotadrearycommitmenttomeanambitionsorloveofcomfort.Theyarenotanxioussocialclimbers,andtheyhavenodevotiontomaterialthings.Allthisseemstometolinkthemwithlife,andtheoriginsofthings.It"sasiftheywereinsomesensecosmicbeingsinviolentanlovelycontrastwithussuburbancreatures.AllthatisinmymindwhenImeetayoungperson.Hemaybeconceited,ill-mannered,presumptuousoffatuous,butIdonotturnforprotectiontodrearyclichesaboutrespectforelders--asifmereagewereareasonforrespect.Iacceptthatweareequals,andIwillarguewithhim,asanequal,ifIthinkheiswrong.
Lesson7
IamalwaysamazedwhenIhearpeoplesayingthatsportcreatesgoodwillbetweenthenations,andthatifonlythecommonpeoplesoftheworldcouldmeetoneanotheratfootballorcricket,theywouldhavenoinclinationtomeetonthebattlefield.Evenifonedidn"tknowfromconcreteexamples(the1936OlympicGames,forinstancethatinternationalsportingcontestsleadtoorgiesofhatred,onecoulddeduceitfromgeneralprinciples.
Nearlyallthesportspractisednowadaysarecompetitive.Youplaytowin,andthegamehaslittlemeaningunlessyoudoyourutmosttowin.Onthevillagegreen,whereyoupickupsidesandnofeelingoflocalpatriotismisinvolved,itispossibletoplaysimplyforthefunandexercise:butassoonasthequestionofprestigearises,assoonasyoufeelthatyouandsomelargerunitwillbedisgracedifyoulose,themostsavagecombativeinstinctsarearoused.Anyonewhohasplayedeveninaschoolfootballmatchknowsthis.Attheinternationallevelsportisfranklymimicwarfare.Butthesignificantthingisnotthebehaviouroftheplayersbuttheattitudeofthespectators:and,behindthespectators,ofthenations.whoworkthemselvesintofuriesovertheseabsurdcontests,andseriouslybelieve--atanyrateforshortperiods--thatrunning,jumpingandkickingaballaretestsofnationalvirtue.
Lesson8
Parentshavetodomuchlessfortheirchildrentodaythantheyusedtodo,andhomehasbecomemuchlessofaworkshop.Clothescanbeboughtreadymade,washingcangotothelaundry,foodcanbeboughtcooked,cannedorpreserved,breadisbakedanddeliveredbythebaker,milk

arrivesonthedoorstep,mealscanbehadattherestaurant,theworks"canteen,andtheschooldining-room.
Itisunusualnowforfathertopursuehistradeorotheremploymentathome,andhischildrenrarely,ifever,seehimathisplaceofwork.Boysarethereforeseldomtrainedtofollowtheirfather"soccupation,andinmanytownstheyhaveafairlywidechoiceofemploymentandsodogirls.Theyoungwage-earneroftenearnsgoodmoney,andsoonacquiresafeelingofeconomicindependence.Intextileareasithaslongbeencustomaryformotherstogoouttowork,butthispracticehasbecomesowidespreadthattheworkingmotherisnowanotunusualfactorinachild"shomelife,thenumberofmarriedwomeninemploymenthavingmorethandoubledinthelasttwenty-fiveyears.Withmotherearningandhisolderchildrendrawingsubstantialwagesfatherisseldomthedominantfigurethathestillwasatthebeginningofthecentury.Whenmotherworkseconomicadvantagesaccrue,butchildrenlosesomethingofgreatvalueifmother"semploymentpreventsherfrombeinghometogreetthemwhentheyreturnfromschool.
Lesson9
Notallsoundsmadebyanimalsserveaslanguage,andwehaveonlytoturntothatextraordinarydiscoveryofecho-locationinbatstoseeacaseinwhichthevoiceplaysastrictlyutilitarianrole.
Togetafullappreciationofwhatthismeanswemustturnfirsttosomerecenthumaninventions.Everyoneknowsthatifheshoutsinthevicinityofawalloramountainside,anechowillcomeback.Thefurtheroffthissolidobstructionthelongertimewillelapseforthereturnoftheecho.Asoundmadebytappingonthehullofashipwillbereflectedfromtheseabottom,andbymeasuringthetimeintervalbetweenthetapsandthereceiptoftheechoesthedepthoftheseaatthatpointcanbecalculated.Sowasborntheecho-soundingapparatus,nowingeneraluseinships.Everysolidobjectwillreflectasound,varyingac-cordingtothesizeandnatureoftheobject.Ashoaloffishwilldothis.Soitisacomparativelysimplestepfromlocatingtheseabottomtolocatingashoaloffish.Withexperience,andwithimprovedapparatus,itisnowpossiblenotonlytolocateashoalbuttotellifitisherring,cod,orotherwell-knownfish,bythepatternofitsecho.
Afewyearsagoitwasfoundthatcertainbatsemitsqueaksandbyreceivingtheechoestheycouldlocateandsteerclearofobstacles--orlocateflyinginsectsonwhichtheyfeed.Thisecho-locationinbatsisoftencomparedwithradar,theprincipleofwhichissimilar.
Lesson10
Inournewsocietythereisagrowingdislikeoforiginal,creativemen.Themanipulateddonotunderstandthem;themanipulatorsfearthem.Thetidycommitteemenregardthemwithhorror,knowingthatnopigeonholescanbefoundforthem.Wecoulddowithafeworiginal,creativemeninourpoliticallife—ifonlytocreatesomeenthusiasm,releasesomeenergy--butwherearethey?Weareaskedtochoosebetweenvariousshadesofthenegative.Theengineisfallingtopieceswhilethejointownersofthecararguewhetherthefootbrakeorthehandbrakeshouldbeapplied.Noticehowthecold,colourlessmen,withoutideasandwithnootherpassionbutacravingforsuccess,getoninthissociety,capturingoneplumafteranotherandtakingthejuiceandtasteoutofthem.Sometimesyoumightthinkthemachinesweworshipmakeallthechiefappointments,promotingthehumanbeingswhoseemclosesttothem.Betweenmid-nightanddawn,whensleepwillnotcomeandalltheoldwoundsbegintoache,Ioftenhaveanightmare

visionofafutureworldinwhichtherearebillionsofpeople,allnumberedandregistered,withnotagleamofgeniusanywhere,notanoriginalmind,arichpersonality,onthewholepackedglobe.Thetwinidealsofourtime,organizationandquantity,willhavewonforever.
Lesson11
AlfredtheGreatactedashisownspy,visitingDanishcampsdisguisedasaminstrel.Inthosedayswanderingminstrelswerewelcomeeverywhere.Theywerenotfightingmen,andtheirharpwastheirpassport.Alfredhadlearnedmanyoftheirballadsinhisyouth,andcouldvaryhisprogrammewithacrobatictricksandsimpleconjuring.
WhileAlfred"slittlearmyslowlybegantogatheratAthelney,thekinghimselfsetouttopenetratethecampofGuthrum,thecommanderoftheDanishinvaders.ThesehadsettleddownforthewinteratChippenham:thitherAlfredwent.Henoticedatoncethatdisciplinewasslack:theDaneshadtheself-confidenceofconquerors,andtheirsecurityprecautionswerecasual.Theylivedwell,ontheproceedsofraidsonneighbouringregions.Theretheycollectedwomenaswellasfoodanddrink,andalifeofeasehadmadethemsoft.
AlfredstayedinthecampaweekbeforehereturnedtoAthelney.TheforcethereassembledwastrivialcomparedwiththeDanishhorde.ButAlfredhaddeducedthattheDaneswerenolongerfitforprolongedbattle:andthattheircommissariathadnoorganization,butdependedonirregularraids.
So,facedwiththeDanishadvance,Alfreddidnotriskopenbattlebutharriedtheenemy.Hewasconstantlyonthemove,drawingtheDanesafterhim.Hispatrolshaltedtheraidingparties:hungerassailedtheDanisharmy.NowAlfredbeganalongseriesofskirmishes--andwithinamonththeDaneshadsurrendered.Theepisodecouldreasonablyserveasauniqueepicofroyalespionage!
Lesson12
WhatcharacterizesalmostallHollywoodpicturesistheirinneremptiness.Thisiscompensatedforbyanouterimpressiveness.Suchimpressivenessusuallytakestheformoftrulygrandioserealism.Nothingissparedtomakethesetting,thecostumes,allofthesurfacedetailscorrect.Theseeffortshelptomasktheessentialemptinessofthecharacterization,andtheabsurditiesandtrivialitiesoftheplots.Thehouseslooklikehouses,thestreetslooklikestreets;thepeoplelookandtalklikepeople;buttheyareemptyofhumanity,credibility,andmotivation.Needlesstosay,thedisgracefulcensorshipcodeisanimportantfactorinpredeterminingthecontentofthesepictures.Butthecodedoesnotdisturbtheprofits,northeentertainmentvalueofthefilms;itmerelyhelpstopreventthemfrombeingcredible.Itisn"ttooheavyaburdenfortheindustrytobear.Inadditiontotheimpressivenessofthesettings,thereisauseofthecamera,whichattimesseemsmagical.Butofwhathumanimportisallthisskill,allthiseffort,allthisenergyintheproductionofeffects,whenthestory,therepresentationoflifeishollow,stupid,banal,childish?
Lesson13
Oxfordhasbeenruinedbythemotorindustry.ThepeacewhichOxfordonceknew,andwhichagreatuniversitycityshouldalwayshave,hasbeensweptruthlesslyaway;andnobenefactionsandresearchendowmentscanmakeupforthechangeincharacterwhichthecityhassuffered.AtsixinthemorningtheoldcourtsshaketotheroarofbusestakingthenextshifttoCowleyand

PressedSteel,greatlorrieswithadoubledeckcargoofcarsforexportlumberpastMagdalenandtheUniversityChurch.Loadsofmotor-enginesarehurriedhitherandthitherandthestreetsarethrongedwithapopulationwhichhasnointerestinlearningandknowsnostudiesbeyondservo-systemsanddistributors,compressionratiosandcamshafts.
Theoreticallythemarriageofanoldseatoflearningandtraditionwithanewandwealthyindustrymightbeexpectedtoproducesomeinterestingchildren.Itmighthavebeenthoughtthatthecultureoftheuniversitywouldradiateoutandtransformthelivesoftheworkers.Thatthishasnothappenedmaybethefaultoftheuniversity,foratbothOxfordandCambridgethecollegestendtoliveinanerawhichiscertainlynotofthetwentiethcentury,anduponaplanetwhichbearslittleresemblancetothewar-tornEarth.WhereverthefaultmayliethefactremainsthatitisthetheatreatOxfordandnotatCambridgewhichisonthevergeofextinction,andtheonlyfruitofthecombinationofindustryandtherarefiedatmosphereoflearningisthedustinthestreets,andapatheticsenseofbeinglostwhichhangsoversomeofthecolleges.
Lesson14
Someoldpeopleareoppressedbythefearofdeath.Intheyoungthereisajustificationforthisfeeling.Youngmenwhohavereasontofearthattheywillbekilledinbattlemayjustifiablyfeelbitterinthethoughtthattheyhavebeencheatedofthebestthingsthatlifehastooffer.Butinanoldmanwhohasknownhumanjoysandsorrows,andhasachievedwhateverworkitwasinhimtodo,thefearofdeathissomewhatabjectandignoble.Thebestwaytoovercomeit-soatleastitseemstome----istomakeyourinterestsgraduallywiderandmoreimpersonal,untilbitbybitthewallsoftheegorecede,andyourlifebecomesincreasinglymergedintheuniversallife.Anindividualhumanexistenceshouldbelikeariver--smallatfirst,narrowlycontainedwithinitsbanks,andrushingpassionatelypastbouldersandoverwaterfalls.Graduallytherivergrowswider,thebanksrecede,thewatersflowmorequietly,andintheend,withoutanyvisiblebreak,theybecomemergedinthesea,andpainlesslylosetheirindividualbeing.Themanwho,inoldage,canseehislifeinthisway,willnotsufferfromthefearofdeath,sincethethingshecaresforwillcontinue.Andit,withthedecayofvitality,wearinessincreases,thethoughtofrestwillbenotunwelcome.Ishouldwishtodiewhilestillatwork,knowingthatotherswillcarryonwhatIcannolongerdo,andcontentinthethoughtthatwhatwaspossiblehasbeendone.
Lesson15
Whenanyoneopensacurrentaccountatabank,heislendingthebankmoney,repaymentofwhichhemaydemandatanytime,eitherincashorbydrawingachequeinfavourofanotherperson.Primarily,thebanker-customerrelationshipisthatofdebtorandcreditor--whoiswhichdependingonwhetherthecustomer"saccountisincreditorisoverdrawn.But,inadditiontothatbasicallysimpleconcept,thebankanditscustomerowealargenumberofobligationstooneanother.Manyoftheseobligationscangiverisetoproblemsandcomplicationsbutabankcustomer,unlike,say,abuyerofgoods,cannotcomplainthatthelawisloadedagainsthim.
Thebankmustobeyitscustomer"sinstructions,andnotthoseofanyoneelse.When,forexample,acustomerfirstopensanaccount,heinstructsthebanktodebithisaccountonlyinrespectofchequesdrawnbyhimself.Hegivesthebankspecimensofhissignature,andthereisaveryfirmrulethatthebankhasnorightorauthoritytopayoutacustomer"smoneyonachequeonwhichitscustomer"ssignaturehasbeenforged.Itmakesnodifferencethattheforgerymayhavebeenavery

skilfulone:thebankmustrecognizeitscustomer"ssignature.Forthisreasonthereisnorisktothecustomerinthemodernpractice,adoptedbysomebanks,ofprintingthecustomer"snameonhischeques.Ifthisfacilitatesforgeryitisthebankwhichwilllose,notthecustomer.
Lesson16
Thedeepestholesofallaremadeforoil,andtheygodowntoasmuchas25,000feet.Butwedonotneedtosendmendowntogettheoilout,aswemustwithothermineraldeposits.Theholesareonlyborings,lessthanafootindiameter.Myparticularexperienceislargelyinoil,andthesearchforoilhasdonemoretoimprovedeepdrillingthananyotherminingactivity.Whenithasbeendecidedwherewearegoingtodrill,weputupatthesurfaceanoilderrick.Ithastobetallbecauseitislikeagiantblockandtackle,andwehavetolowerintothegroundandhauloutofthegroundgreatlengthsofdrillpipewhicharerotatedbyanengineatthetopandarefittedwithacuttingbitatthebottom.
Thegeologistneedstoknowwhatrocksthedrillhasreached,soeverysooftenasampleisobtainedwithacoringbit.Itcutsacleancylinderofrock,fromwhichcanbeseenhestratathedrillhasbeencuttingthrough.Oncewegetdowntotheoil,itusuallyflowstothesurfacebecausegreatpressure,eitherfromgasorwater,ispushingit.Thispressuremustbeundercontrol,andwecontrolitbymeansofthemudwhichwecirculatedownthedrillpipe.Weendeavourtoavoidtheold,romanticideaofagusher,whichwastesoilandgas.Wewantittostaydowntheholeuntilwecanleaditoffinacontrolledmanner.
Lesson17
Thefactthatwearenotsurewhat"intelligence"is,norwhatispassedon,doesnotpreventusfromfindingitaveryusefulworkingconcept,andplacingacertainamountofrelianceontestswhich"measure"it.
Inanintelligencetestwetakeasampleofanindividual"sabilitytosolvepuzzlesandproblemsofvariouskinds,andifwehavetakenarepresentativesampleitwillallowustopredictsuccessfullythelevelofperformancehewillreachinawidevarietyofoccupations.
Thisbecameofparticularimportancewhen,asaresultofthe1944EducationAct,secondaryschoolingforallbecamelaw,andgrammarschools,withtheexceptionofasmallnumberofindependentfoundationschools,becameavailabletothewholepopulation.Sincethenumberofgrammarschoolsinthecountrycouldaccommodateatmostapproximately25percentofthetotalchildpopulationofeleven-plus,somekindofselectionhadtobemade.Narrowlyacademicexaminationsandtestswerefelt,quiterightly,tobeheavilyweightedinfavourofchildrenwhohadhadtheadvantageofhighly-academicprimaryschoolsandacademicallybiasedhomes.Intelligencetestsweredevisedtocounteractthisnarrowspecialization,byintroducingproblemswhichwerenotbasedonspecificallyscholastically-acquiredknowledge.Theintelligencetestisanattempttoassessthegeneralabilityofanychildtothink,reason,judge,analyseandsynthesizebypresentinghimwithsituations,bothverbalandpractical,whicharewithinhisrangeofcompetenceandunderstanding.
Lesson18
Twofactorsweighheavilyagainsttheeffectivenessofscientificinindustry.Oneisthegeneralatmosphereofsecrecyinwhichitiscarriedout,theotherthelackoffreedomoftheindividual

researchworker.Insofarasanyinquiryisasecretone,itnaturallylimitsallthoseengagedincarryingitoutfromeffectivecontactwiththeirfellowscientistseitherinothercountriesorinuniversities,oreven,oftenenough,inotherdepartmentsofthesamefirm.Thedegreeofsecrecynaturallyvariesconsiderably.Someofthebiggerfirmsareengagedinresearcheswhichareofsuchgeneralandfundamentalnaturethatitisapositiveadvantagetothemnottokeepthemsecret.Yetagreatmanyprocessesdependingonsuchresearcharesoughtforwithcompletesecrecyuntilthestageatwhichpatentscanbetakenout.Evenmoreprocessesareneverpatentedatallbutkeptassecretprocesses.Thisappliesparticularlytochemicalindustries,wherechancediscoveriesplayamuchlargerpartthantheydoinphysicalandmechanicalindustries.Sometimesthesecrecygoestosuchanextentthatthewholenatureoftheresearchcannotbementioned.Manyfirms,forinstance,havegreatdifficultyinobtainingtechnicalorscientificbooksfromlibrariesbecausetheyareunwillingtohavetheirnamesenteredashavingtakenoutsuchandsuchabookforfeartheagentsofotherfirmsshouldbeabletotracethekindofresearchtheyarelikelytobeundertaking.
Lesson19
Agentlemanis,ratherthandoes.Heisinterestedinnothinginaprofessionalway.Heisallowedtocultivatehobbies,eveneccentricities,butmustnotpractiseavocation.Hemustknowhowtorideandshootandcastafly.Heshouldhaverelativesinthearmyandnavyandatleastoneconnectioninthediplomaticservice.ButthereareweaknessesintheEnglishgentleman"sabilitytoruleustoday.Heusuallyknowsnothingofpoliticaleconomyandlessabouthowforeigncountriesaregoverned.Hedoesnotrespectlearningandprefers"sport".Theproblemsetforsocietyisnotthevirtuesofthetypesomuchasitsadequacyforitsfunction,andheregravedifficultiesarise.Herefusestoconsidersufficientlythewantsofthecustomer,whomustbuy,notthethinghedesiresbutthethingtheEnglishgentlemanwantstosell.Heattendsinadequatelytotechnologicaldevelopment.Disbelievinginthenecessityoflarge-scaleproductioninthemodernworld,heispassionatelydevotedtoexcessivesecrecy,bothinfinanceandmethodofproduction.Hehasanincurableandwidespreadnepotisminappointment,discountingabilityandrelyinguponamysticentitycalled"character,"whichmeans,inagentleman"smouth,thequalitieshetraditionallypossesseshimself.Hislackofimaginationandthenarrownessofhissocialloyaltieshaverangedagainsthimoneofthefundamentalestatesoftherealm.Heisincapableofthatimaginativerealismwhichadmitsthatthisisanewworldtowhichhemustadjusthimselfandhisinstitutions,thateveryprivilegeheformerlytookasofrighthecannowattainonlybyofferingproofthatitisdirectlyrelevanttosocialwelfare.
Lesson20
Intheorganizationofindustriallifetheinfluenceofthefactoryuponthephysiologicalandmentalstateoftheworkershasbeencompletelyneglected.Modernindustryisbasedontheconceptionofthemaximumproductionatlowestcost,inorderthatanindividualoragroupofindividualsmayearnasmuchmoneyaspossible.Ithasexpandedwithoutanyideaofthetruenatureofthehumanbeingswhorunthemachines,andwithoutgivinganyconsiderationtotheeffectsproducedontheindividualsandontheirdescendantsbytheartificialmodeofexistenceimposedbythefactory.Thegreatcitieshavebeenbuiltwithnoregardforus.Theshapeanddimensionsoftheskyscrapersdependentirelyonthenecessityofobtainingthemaximumincomepersquarefootofground,andofofferingtothetenantsofficesandapartmentsthatpleasethem.Thiscausedthe

constructionofgiganticbuildingswheretoolargemassesofhumanbeingsarecrowdedtogether.Civilizedmenlikesuchawayofliving.Whiletheyenjoythecomfortandbanalluxuryoftheirdwelling,theydonotrealizethattheyaredeprivedofthenecessitiesoflife.Themoderncityconsistsofmonstrousedificesandofdark,narrowstreetsfullofpetrolfumes,coaldust,andtoxicgases,tornbythenoiseofthetaxi-cabs,lorriesandbuses,andthrongedceaselesslybygreatcrowds.Obviously,ithasnobeenplannedforthegoodofitsinhabitants.
Lesson21
IntheearlydaysofthesettlementofAustralia,enterprisingsettlersunwiselyintroducedtheEuropeanrabbit.ThisrabbithadnonaturalenemiesintheAntipodes,sothatitmultipliedwiththatpromiscuousabandoncharacteristicofrabbits.Itoverranawholecontinent.Itcauseddevastationbyburrowingandbydevouringtheherbagewhichmighthavemaintainedmillionsofsheepandcattle.Scientistsdiscoveredthatthisparticularvarietyofrabbit(andapparentlynootheranimalwassusceptibletoafatalvirusdisease,myxomatosis.Byinfectinganimalsandlettingthemlooseintheburrows,localepidemicsofthisdiseasecouldbecreated.Lateritwasfoundthattherewasatypeofmosquitowhichactedasthecarrierofthisdiseaseandpasseditontotherabbits.Sowhiletherestoftheworldwastryingtogetridofmosquitoes,Australiawasencouragingthisone.Iteffectivelyspreadthediseasealloverthecontinentanddrasticallyreducedtherabbitpopulation.Itlaterbecameapparentthatrabbitsweredevelopingadegreeofresistancetothisdisease,sothattherabbitpopulationwasunlikelytobecompletelyexterminated.Therewerehopes,however,thattheproblemoftherabbitwouldbecomemanageable.
Ironically,Europe,whichhadbequeathedtherabbitasapesttoAustraliaacquiredthisman-madediseaseasapestilence.AFrenchphysiciandecidedtogetridofthewildrabbitsonhisownestateandintroducedmyxomatosis.Itdidnot,however,remainwithintheconfinesofhisestate.ItspreadthroughFrancewherewildrabbitsarenotgenerallyregardedasapestbutasasportandausefulfoodsupply,anditspreadtoBritainwherewildrabbitsareregardedasapestbutwheredomesticatedrabbits,equallysusceptibletothedisease,arethebasisofaprofitablefurindustry.ThequestionbecameoneofwhetherMancouldcontrolthediseasehehadinvented.
Lesson22
Therehaslongbeenasuperstitionamongmarinersthatporpoiseswillsavedrowningmenbypushingthemtothesurface,orprotectthemfromsharksbysurroundingthemindefensiveformation.MarineStudiobiologistshavepointedoutthat,howeverintelligenttheymaybe,itisprobablyamistaketocreditdolphinswithanymotiveoflife-saving.Ontheoccasionswhentheyhavepushedtoshoreanunconscioushumanbeingtheyhavemuchmorelikelydoneitoutofcuriosityorforsport,asinridingthebowwavesofaship.In1928someporpoiseswerephotographedworkinglikebeaverstopushashoreawaterloggedmattress.If,ashasbeenreported,theyhaveprotectedhumansfromsharks,itmayhavebeenbecausecuriosityattractedthemandbecausethescentofapossiblemealattractedthesharks.Porpoisesandsharksarenaturalenemies.Itispossiblethatuponsuchanoccasionabattleensued,withthesharksbeingdrivenawayorkilled.
Whetheritbebird,fishorbeast,theporpoiseisintriguedwithanythingthatisalive.Theyareconstantlyaftertheturtles,theFerdinandsofmarinelife,whopeacefullysubmittoallsortsofindignities.Oneyoungcalfespeciallyenjoyedraisingaturtletothesurfacewithhissnoutand

thenshovinghimacrossthetanklikeanaquaplane.Almostanydayayoungporpoisemaybeseentryingtoturna300-poundseaturtleoverbystickinghissnoutundertheedgeofhisshellandpushingupfordearlife.Thisisnoteasy,andmayrequiretwoporpoisesworkingtogether.Inanothergame,astheturtleswimsacrosstheoceanarium,thefirstporpoiseswoopsdownfromaboveandbuttshisshellwithhisbelly.Thisknockstheturtledownseveralfeet.Henosoonerrecovershisequilibriumthanthenextporpoisecomesalongandhitshimanothercrack.Eventuallytheturtlehasbeenbuttedallthewaydowntothefloorofthetank.Heisnowsatisfiedmerelytotrytostandup,butassoonashedoessoaporpoiseknockshimflat.Theturtleatlastgivesupbypullinghisfeetunderhisshellandthegameisover.
Lesson23
Itisfairlyclearthatthesleepingperiodmusthavesomefunction,andbecausethereissomuchofitthefunctionwouldseemtobeimportant.Speculationsaboutitsnaturehavebeengoingonforliterallythousandsofyears,andoneoddfindingthatmakestheproblempuzzlingisthatitlooksverymuchasifsleepingisnotsimplyamatterofgivingthebodyarest."Rest",intermsofmusclerelaxationandsoon,canbeachievedbyabriefperiodlying,orevensittingdown.Thebody"stissuesareself-repairingandself-restoringtoadegree,andfunctionbestwhenmoreorlesscontinuouslyactive.Infactabasicamountofmovementoccursduringsleepwhichisspecificallyconcernedwithpreventingmuscleinactivity.
Ifitisnotaquestionofrestingthebody,thenperhapsitisthebrainthatneedsresting?Thismightbeaplausiblehypothesiswereitnotfortwofactors.Firsttheelectroencephalograph(whichissimplyadeviceforrecordingtheelectricalactivityofthebrainbyattachingelectrodestothescalpshowsthatwhilethereisachangeinthepatternofactivityduringsleep,thereisnoevidencethatthetotalamountofactivityisanyless.Thesecondfactorismoreinterestingandmorefundamental.Inl960anAmericanpsychiatristnamedWilliamDementpublishedexperimentsdealingwiththerecordingofeye-movementsduringsleep.Heshowedthattheaverageindividual"ssleepcycleispunctuatedwithpeculiarburstsofeye-movements,somedriftingandslow,othersjerkyandrapid.Peoplewokenduringtheseperiodsofeye-movementsgenerallyreportedthattheyhadbeendreaming.Whenwokenatothertimestheyreportednodreams.Ifonegroupofpeopleweredisturbedfromtheireye-movementsleepforseveralnightsonend,andanothergroupweredisturbedforanequalperiodoftimebutwhentheywerenotexhibitingeye-movements,thefirstgroupbegantoshowsomepersonalitydisorderswhiletheothersseemedmoreorlessunaffected.Theimplicationsofallthiswerethatitwasnotthedisturbanceofsleepthatmattered,butthedisturbanceofdreaming.
Lesson24
Walkingforwalking"ssakemaybeashighlylaudableandexemplaryathingasitisheldtobebythosewhopractiseit.Myobjectiontoitisthatitstopsthebrain.ManyamanhasprofessedtomethathisbrainneverworkssowellaswhenheisswingingalongthehighroadoroverhillanddaleThisboastisnotconfirmedbymymemoryofanybodywhoonaSundaymorninghasforcedmetopartakeofhisadventure.Experienceteachesmethatwhateverafellow-guestmayhaveofpowertoinstructortoamusewhenheissittinginachair,orstandingonahearth-rug,quicklyleaveshimwhenhetakesoneoutforawalk.Theideasthatcomesothickandfasttohiminanyroom,wherearetheynow?wherethatencyclopaedicknowledgewhichheboresolightly?where

thekindlingfancythatplayedlikesummerlightningoveranytopicthatwasstarted?Theman"sfacethatwassomobileissetnow;goneisthelightfromhisfineeyes.HesaysthatA(ourhostisathoroughlygoodfellow.Fiftyyardsfurtheron,headdsthatAisoneofthebestfellowshehasevermet.WetrampanotherfurlongorsoandhesaysthatMrsAisacharmingwoman.Presentlyheaddsthatsheisoneofthemostcharmingwomenhehaseverknown.Wepassaninn.Hereadsvapidlyaloudtome:"TheKing"sArms.LicensedtosellAlesandSpirits."Iforeseethatduringtherestofthewalkhewillreadaloudanyinscriptionthatoccurs.Wepassamilestone.Hepointsatitwithhisstick,andsays"Uxminster.IIMiles."Weturnasharpcorneratthefootofthehill.Hepointsatthewall,andsays"DriveSlowly.".Iseefarahead,ontheothersideofthehedgeborderingthehighroad,asmallnotice-board.Heseesittoo.Hekeepshiseyeonit.Andinduecourse."Trespassers,"hesays,"willbeProsecuted."Poorman!—mentallyawreck.
Lesson25
Howitcameaboutthatsnakesmanufacturedpoisonisamystery.Overtheperiodstheirsaliva,amild,digestivejuicelikeourown,wasconvertedintoapoisonthatdefiesanalysiseventoday.Itwasnotforceduponthembythesurvivalcompetition;theycouldhavecaughtandlivedonpreywithoutusingpoisonjustasthethousandsofnon-poisonoussnakesstilldo.Poisontoasnakeismerelyaluxury;itenablesittogetitsfoodwithverylittleeffort,nomoreeffortthanonebite.Andwhyonlysnakes?Cats,forinstance,wouldbegreatlyhelped;norunningrightswithlarge,fierceratsortussleswithgrownrabbits-justabiteandnomoreeffortneeded.Infactitwouldbeanassistancetoallthecarnivorae--thoughitwouldbeatwo-edgedweapon-Whentheyfoughteachother.But,ofthevertebrates,unpredictableNatureselectedonlysnakes(andonelizard.OnewondersalsowhyNature,withsomesnakesconcoctedpoisonofsuchextremepotency.
Intheconversionofsalivaintopoisononemightsupposethatafixedprocesstookplace.Itdidnot;somesnakesmanufacturedapoisondifferentineveryrespectfromthatofothers,asdifferentasarsenicisfromstrychnine,andhavingdifferenteffects.Onepoisonactsonthenerves,theotherontheblood.
Themakersofthenervepoisonincludethemambasandthecobrasandtheirvenomiscalledneurotoxic.Vipers(addersandrattlesnakesmanufacturethebloodpoison,whichisknownashaemolytic.Bothpoisonsareunpleasant,butbyfarthemoreunpleasantisthebloodpoison.Itissaidthatthenervepoisonisthemoreprimitiveofthetwo,thatthebloodpoisonis,sotospeak,anewerproductfromanimprovedformula.Bethatasitmay,thenervepoisondoesitsbusinesswithmanfarmorequicklythanthebloodpoison.This,however,meansnothing.Snakesdidnotacquiretheirpoisonforuseagainstmanbutforuseagainstpreysuchasratsandmice,andtheeffectsontheseofviperinepoisonisalmostimmediate.
Lesson27
WilliamS.Hartwas,perhaps,thegreatestofallWesternstars,forunlikeGaryCooperandJohnWayneheappearedinnothingbutWesterns.From1914to1924hewassupremeandunchallenged.ItwasHartwhocreatedthebasicformulaoftheWesternfilm,anddevisedtheprotagonistheplayedineveryfilmhemade,thegood-badman,theaccidental,nobleoutlaw,orthehonestbutframedcowboy,orthesheriffmadesuspectbyviciousgossip;inshort,theindividualinconflictwithhimselfandhisfrontierenvironment.
UnlikemostofhiscontemporariesinHollywood,Hartactually"knewsomethingoftheoldWest.

Hehadlivedinitasachildwhenitwasalreadydisappearing,andhisherowasfirmlyrootedinhismemoriesandexperiences,andinboththehistoryandthemythologyofthevanishedfrontier.AndalthoughnoperiodorplaceinAmericanhistoryhasbeenmoreabsurdlyromanticized,mythandrealitydidjoinhandsinatleastonearena,theconflictbetweentheindividualandencroachingcivilization.
MenaccustomedtostrugglingforsurvivalagainsttheelementsandIndianwerebewilderedbypoliticians,bankersandbusiness-men,andunhorsedbyfences,lawsandalientaboos.Hart"sgood-badmanwasalwaysanoutsider,alwaysoneofthedisinherited,andifhefounditnecessarytoshootasherifforrobabankalongtheway,hisearlyaudiencesfounditeasytounderstandandforgive,especiallywhenitwasHartwho,intheend,overcametheattackingIndians.
Audiencesintheseconddecadeofthetwentiethcenturyfounditpleasanttoescapetoatimewhenlife,thoughhard,wasrelativelysimple.Westilldo;livinginaworldinwhichundeclaredaggression,war,hypocrisy,chicanery,anarchyandimpendingimmolationarepartofourdailylives,weallwantacodetoliveby.
Lesson27
Whydoestheideaofprogressloomsolargeinthemodernworld?Surelybecauseprogressofaparticularkindisactuallytakingplacearoundusandisbecomingmoreandmoremanifest.Althoughmankindhasundergonenogeneralimprovementinintelligenceormorality,ithasmadeextraordinaryprogresstheaccumulationofknowledge.Knowledgebegantoincreaseassoonasthethoughtsofoneindividualcouldbecommunicatedtoanotherbymeansofspeech.Withtheinventionofwriting,agreatadvancewasmade,forknowledgecouldthenbenotonlycommunicatedbutalsostored.Librariesmadeeducationpossible,andeducationinitsturnaddedtolibraries:thegrowthofknowledgefollowedakindofcompound-interestlaw,whichwasgreatlyenhancedbytheinventionofprinting.Allthiswascomparativelyslowuntil,withthecomingscience,thetempowassuddenlyraised.Thenknowledgebegantobeaccumulatedaccordingtoasystematicplan.Thetricklebecameastream;thestreamhasnowbecomeatorrent.Moreover,assoonasnewknowledgeisacquired,itisnowturnedtopracticalaccount.Whatiscalled"moderncivilization"isnottheresultofabalanceddevelopmentofallman"snature,butofaccumulatedknowledgeappliedtopracticallife.Theproblemnowfacinghumanityis:Whatisgoingtobedonewithallthisknowledge?Asissooftenpointedout,knowledgeisatwo-edgedweaponwhichcanbeusedequallyforgoodorevil.Itisnowbeingusedindifferentlyforboth.Couldanyspectacle,forinstance,bemoregrimlywhimsicalthanthatofgunnersusingsciencetoshattermen"sbodieswhile,closeathand,surgeonsuseittorestorethem?Wehavetoaskourselvesveryseriouslywhatwillhappenifthistwofolduseofknowledge,withitsever-increasingpower,continues.
Lesson28
Notwosortsofbirdspractisequitethesamesortofflight;thevarietiesareinfinite,buttwoclassesmayberoughlyseen.Anyshipthatcrossesthepacificisaccompaniedformanydaysbythesmalleralbatross,whichmaykeepcompanywiththevesselforanhourwithoutvisibleormorethanoccasionalmovementofwing.Thecurrentsofairthatthewallsoftheshipdirectupwards,aswellasinthelineofitscourseareenoughtogivethegreatbirdwithitsimmensewingssufficientsustenanceandprogress.Thealbatrossisthekingofthegliders,theclassoffliers

whichharnesstheairtotheirpurpose,butmustyieldtoitsopposition.Inthecontraryschooltheduckissupreme.Itcomesnearertotheengineswithwhichmanhas"conquered"theair,asheboasts.Duck,andlikethemthepigeons,areendowedwithsteel-likemuscles,thatareagoodpartoftheweightofthebird,andthesewillplytheshortwingswithirresistiblepowerthattheycanboreforlongdistancesthroughanoppositegalebeforeexhaustionfollows.Theirhumblerfollowers,suchaspartridges,havealikepowerofstrongpropulsion,butsoontire.Youmaypickthemupinutterexhaustion,ifwindovertheseahasdriventhemtoalongjourney.Theswallowsharesthevirtuesofbothschoolsinhighestmeasure.Ittiresnotnordoesitboastofitspower;butbelongstotheair,travellingitmaybesixthousandmilestoandfromitsnorthernnestinghomefeedingitsflownyoungasitfliesandslippingthroughamediumthatseemstohelpitspassageevenwhenthewindisadverse.Suchbirdsdousgood,thoughwenolongertakeomensfromtheirflightonthissideandthat,andeventhemostsuperstitiousvillagersnolongertakeofftheirhatstothemagpieandwishitgood-morning.
Lesson29
Ayoungmanseesasunsetand,unabletounderstandortoexpresstheemotionthatitrousesinhim,concludesthatitmustbethegatewaytoaworldthatliesbeyond.Itisdifficultforanyofusinmomentsofintenseaestheticexperiencetoresistthesuggestionthatwearecatchingaglimpseofalightthatshinesdowntousfromadifferentrealmofexistence,differentand,becausetheexperienceisintenselymoving,insomewayhigher.And,thoughthegleamsblindanddazzle,yetdotheyconveyahintofbeautyandserenitygreaterthanwehaveknownorimagined.Greatertoothanwecandescribe,forlanguage,whichwasinventedtoconveythemeaningsofthisworld,cannotreadilybefittedtotheusesofanother.
Thatallgreatarthasthispowerofsuggestingaworldbeyondisundeniable.InsomemoodsNaturesharesit.ThereisnoskyinJunesobluethatitdoesnotpointforwardtoabluer,nosunsetsobeautifulthatitdoesnotwakenthevisionofagreaterbeauty,avisionwhichpassesbeforeitisfullyglimpsed,andinpassingleavesanindefinablelongingandregret.But,ifthisworldisnotmerelyabadjoke,lifeavulgarflareamidthecoolradianceofthestars,andexistenceanemptylaughbrayingacrossthemysteries;iftheseintimationsofasomethingbehindandbeyondarenotevilhumourbornofindigestion,orwhimsiessentbythedeviltomockandmaddenus,if,inaword,beautymeanssomething,yetwemustnotseektointerpretthemeaning.Ifweglimpsetheunutterable,itisunwisetotrytoutterit,norshouldweseektoinvestwithsignificancethatwhichwecannotgrasp.Beautyintermsofourhumanmeaningsismeaningless.
Lesson30
Eachcivilizationisborn,itculminates,anditdecays.Thereisawidespreadtestimonythatthisominousfactisduetoinherentbiologicaldefectsinthecrowdedlifeofcities.Now,slowlyandatfirstfaintly,anoppositetendencyisshowingitself.Betterroadsandbettervehiclesatfirstinducedthewealthierclassestoliveontheoutskirtsofthecities.Theurgentneedfordefencehadalsovanished.Thistendencyisnowspreadingrapidlydownwards.Butanewsetofconditionsisjustshowingitself.Uptothepresenttime,throughouttheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturies,thisnewtendencyplacedthehomeintheimmediatesuburbs,butconcentratedmanufacturingactivity,businessrelations,government,andpleasureinthecentresofthecities.Apartfromthecareofchildrenandperiodsofsheerrest,theactiveliveswerespentinthecities.Insomewaysthe

concentrationofsuchactivitieswasevenmoreemphasized,andthehomeswerepushedoutwardsevenatthecostofthediscomfortofcommuting.But,ifweexaminethetrendoftechnologyduringthepastgeneration,thereasonsforthisconcentrationarelargelydisappearing.Stillmore,thereasonsforthechoiceofsitesforcitiesarealsoaltering.Mechanicalpowercanbetransmittedforhundredsofmiles,mencancommunicatealmostinstantaneouslybytelephone,thechiefsofgreatorganizationscanbetransportedbyairplanes,thecinemascanproduceplaysineveryvillage,music,speeches,andsermonscanbebroadcast.Almosteveryreasonforthegrowthofthecities,concurrentlywiththegrowthofcivilizationhasbeenprofoundlymodified.
Lesson31
ManypeopleinindustryandtheServices,whohavepracticalexperienceofnoise,regardanyinvestigationofthisquestionasawasteoftime;theyarenotpreparedeventoadmitthepossibilitythatnoiseaffectspeople.Ontheotherhand,thosewhodislikenoisewillsometimesusemostinadequateevidencetosupporttheirpleasforaquietersociety.Thisisapity,becausenoiseabatementreallyisagoodcause.anditislikelytobediscreditedifitgetstobeassociatedwithbadscience.
Oneallegationoftenmadeisthatnoiseproducesmentalillness.Arecentarticleinaweeklynewspaper,forinstance,washeadedwithastrikingillustrationofaladyinastateofconsiderabledistress,withthecaption"Shewasyetanothervictim,reducedtoascreamingwreck".Onturningeagerlytothetext,onelearnsthattheladywasatypistwhofoundthesoundofofficetypewritersworriedhermoreandmoreuntileventuallyshehadtogointoamentalhospital.Nowthesnaginthissortofanecdoteisofcoursethatonecannotdistinguishcauseandeffect.Wasthenoiseacauseoftheillness,orwerethecomplaintsaboutnoisemerelyasymptom?Anotherpatientmightequallywellcomplainthatherneigh-bourswerecombiningtoslanderherandpersecuteher,andyetonemightbecautiousaboutbelievingthisstatement.
Whatisneededinthecaseofnoiseisastudyoflargenumbersofpeoplelivingundernoisyconditions,todiscoverwhethertheyarementallyillmoreoftenthanotherpeopleare.TheUnitedStatesNavy,forinstance,recentlyexaminedaverylargenumberofmenworkingonaircraftcarriers:thestudywasknownasProjectAnehin.Itcanbeunpleasanttoliveevenseveralmilesfromanaerodrome;ifyouthinkwhatitmustbeliketosharethedeckofashipwithseveralsquadronsofjetaircraft,youwillrealizethatamodernnavyisagoodplacetostudynoise.ButneitherpsychiatricinterviewsnorobjectivetestswereabletoshowanyeffectsupontheseAmericansailors.ThisresultmerelyconfirmsearlierAmericanandBritishstudies:ifthereisanyeffectofnoiseuponmentalhealthitmustbesosmallthatpresentmethodsofpsychiatricdiagnosiscannotfindit.Thatdoesnotprovethatitdoesnotexist;butitdoesmeanthatnoiseislessdangerousthan,say,beingbroughtupinanorphanages--whichreallyisamentalhealthhazard.
Lesson32
Itisanimalsandplantswhichlivedinornearwaterwhoseremainsaremostlikelytobepreserved,foroneofthenecessaryconditionsofpreservationisquickburial,anditisonlyintheseasandrivers,andsometimeslakes,wheremudandsilthavebeencontinuouslydeposited,thatbodiesandthelikecanberapidlycoveredoverandpreserved.
Buteveninthemostfavourablecircumstancesonlyasmallfractionofthecreaturesthatdieare

preservedinthiswaybeforedecaysetsinor,evenmorelikely,beforescavengerseatthem.Afterall,alllivingcreatureslivebyfeedingonsomethingelse,whetheritbeplantoranimal,deadoralive,anditisonlybychancethatsuchafateisavoided.Theremainsofplantsandanimalsthatlivedonlandaremuchmorerarelypreserved,forthereisseldomanythingtocoverthemover.Whenyouthinkoftheinnumerablebirdsthatoneseesflyingabout,nottomentiontheequallynumeroussmallanimalslikefieldmiceandvoleswhichyoudonotsee,itisveryrarelythatonecomesacrossadeadbody,except,ofcourse,ontheroads.Theydecomposeandarequicklydestroyedbytheweatheroreatenbysomeothercreature.
Itisalmostalwaysduetosomeveryspecialcircumstancesthattracesoflandanimalssurvive,asbyfallingintoinaccessiblecaves,orintoanicecrevasse,liketheSiberianmammoths,whenthewholeanimalissometimespreserved,asinarefrigerator.ThisiswhathappenedtothefamousBeresovkamammothwhichwasfoundpreservedandingoodcondition.Inhismouthweretheremainsoffirtrees--thelastmealthathehadbeforehefellintothecrevasseandbrokehisback.ThemammothhasnowbeenrestoredinthePalaeontologicalMuseuminLeningrad.Otheranimalsweretrappedintarpits,liketheelephants,sabre-toothedcats,andnumerousothercreaturesthatarefoundatRancholaBrea,whichisnowjustasuburbofLosAngeles.Apparentlywhathappenedwasthatwatercollectedonthesetarpits,andthebiggeranimalsliketheelephantsventuredoutontotheapparentlyfirmsurfacetodrink,andwerepromptlyboggedinthetar.Andthen,whentheyweredead,thecarnivores,likethesabre-toothedcatsandthegiantwolves,cameouttofeedandsufferedexactlythesamefate.Therearealsoendlessnumbersofbirdsinthetaraswell.
Lesson33
Fromtheseventeenth-centuryempireofSweden,thestoryofagalleonthatsankatthestartofhermaidenvoyagein1628mustbeoneofthestrangesttalesofthesea.FornearlythreeandahalfcenturiesshelayatthebottomofStockholmharbouruntilherdiscoveryin1956.ThiswastheVasa,royalflagshipofthegreatimperialfleet.
KingGustavusAdolphus,"TheNorthernHurricane",thenattheheightofhismilitarysuccessintheThirtyYears"War,haddictatedhermeasurementsandarmament.Triplegun-decksmountedsixty-fourbronzecannon.ShewasintendedtoplayaleadingroleinthegrowingmightofSweden.
AsshewaspreparedforhermaidenvoyageonAugust10,1628,Stockholmwasinaferment.FromtheSkeppsbronandsurroundingislandsthepeoplewatchedthisthingofbeautybegintospreadhersailsandcatchthewind.Theyhadlabouredforthreeyearstoproducethisfloatingworkofart;shewasmorerichlycarvedandornamentedthananypreviousship.Thehighsterncastlewasariotofcarvedgods,demons,knights,kings,warriors,mermaids,cherubs;andzoomorphicanimalshapesablazewithredandgoldandblue,symbolsofcourage,power,andcruelty,wereportrayedtostirtheimaginationsofthesuperstitioussailorsoftheday.
ThenthecannonsoftheanchoredwarshipsthunderedasalutetowhichtheVasafiredinreply.Assheemergedfromherdriftingcloudofgunsmokewiththewaterchurnedtofoambeneathherbow,herflagsflying,pennantswaving,sailsfillinginthebreeze,andtheredandgoldofhersuperstructureablazewithcolour,shepresentedamoremajesticspectaclethanStockholmershadeverseenbefore.Allgun-portswereopenandthemuzzlespeepedwickedlyfromthem.Asthewindfreshenedtherecameasuddensquallandtheshipmadeastrangemovement,listingtoport.

TheOrdnanceOfficerorderedalltheportcannontobeheavedtostarboardtocounteractthelist,butthesteepeningangleofthedecksincreased.Thenthesoundofrumblingthunderreachedthewatchersontheshore,ascargo,ballast,ammunitionand400peoplewentslidingandcrashingdowntotheportsideofthesteeplylistingship.Thelowergun-portswerenowbelowwaterandtheinrushsealedtheship"sfate.Inthatfirstglorioushour,themightyVasa,whichwasintendedtoruletheBaltic,sankwithallflagsflying—intheharbourofherbirth.
Lesson34
Thisisascepticalage,butalthoughourfaithinmanyofthethingsinwhichourforefathersferventlybelievedhasweakened,ourconfidenceinthecurativepropertiesofthebottleofmedicineremainsthesameastheirs.ThismodernfaithinmedicinesisrovedbythefactthattheannualdrugbilloftheHealthServicesismountingtoastronomicalfiguresandshowsnosignsatpresentofceasingtorise.Themajorityofthepatientsattendingthemedicalout-patientsdepartmentsofourhospitalsfeelthattheyhavenotreceivedadequatetreatmentunlesstheyareabletocarryhomewiththemsometangibleremedyintheshapeofabottleofmedicine,aboxofpills,orasmalljarofointment,andthedoctorinchargeofthedepartmentisonlytooreadytoprovidethemwiththeserequirements.Thereisnoquickermethodofdisposingofpatientsthanbygivingthemwhattheyareaskingfor,andsincemostmedicalmenintheHealthServicesareoverworkedandhavelittletimeforofferingtime-consumingandlittle-appreciatedadviceonsuchsubjectsasdiet,rightliving,andtheneedforabandoningbadhabits,etc.,thebottle,thebox,andthejararealmostalwaysgrantedthem.
Norisitonlytheignorantandill-educatedpersonwhohassuchfaithinthebottleofmedicine,especiallyifitbewrappedinwhitepaperandsealedwithadabofredsealing-waxbyacleverchemist.ItisrecountedofThomasCarlylethatwhenheheardoftheillnessofhisfriend,HenryTaylor,hewentoffimmediatelytovisithim,carryingwithhiminhispocketwhatremainedofabottleofmedicineformerlyprescribedforanindispositionofMrsCarlyle"s.Carlylewasentirelyignorantofwhatthebottleinhispocketcontained,ofthenatureoftheillnessfromwhichhisfriendwassuffering,andofwhathadpreviouslybeenwrongwithhiswife,butamedicinethathadworkedsowellinoneformofillnesswouldsurelybeofequalbenefitinanother,andcomfortedbythethoughtofthehelphewasbringingtohisfriend,hehastenedtoHenryTaylor"shouse.Historydoesnotrelatewhetherhisfriendacceptedhismedicalhelp,butinallprobabilityhedid.Thegreatadvantageoftakingmedicineisthatitmakesnodemandsonthetakerbeyondthatofputtingupforamomentwithadisgustingtaste,andthatiswhatallpatientsdemandoftheirdoctors--tobecuredatnoinconveniencetothemselves.
Lesson35
Manystrangenewmeansoftransporthavebeendevelopedinourcentury,thestrangestofthembeingperhapsthehovercraft.In1953,aformerelectronicsengineerinhisfifties,ChristopherCockerell,whohadturnedtoboat-buildingontheNorfolkBroads,suggestedanideaonwhichhehadbeenworkingformanyyearstotheBritishGovernmentandindustrialcircles.Itwastheideaofsupportingacraftona"pad",orcushion,oflow-pressureair,ringedwithacurtainofhigherpressureair.Eversince,peoplehavehaddifficultyindecidingwhetherthecraftshouldberangedamongships,planes,orlandvehicles--foritissomethinginbetweenaboatandanaircraft.Asashipbuilder,Cockerellwastryingtofindasolutiontotheproblemofthewaveresistancewhich

wastesagooddealofasurfaceship"spowerandlimitsitsspeed.Hisanswerwastoliftthevesseloutofthewaterbymakingitrideonacushionofair,nomorethanoneortwofeetthick.Thisisdonebyagreatnumberofring-shapedairjetsonthebottomofthecraft.It"flies",therefore,butitcannotflyhigher--itsactionde-pendsonthesurface,waterorground,overwhichitrides.
ThefirsttestsontheSolentin1959causedasensation.Thehovercrafttravelledfirstoverthewater,thenmountedthebeach,climbedupthedunes,andsatdownonaroad.LateritcrossedtheChannel,ridingsmoothlyoverthewaves,whichpresentednoproblem.
Sincethattime,varioustypesofhovercrafthaveappearedandtakenupregularservice--cruisesontheThamesinLondon,forinstance,havebecomeanannualattraction.Butweareonlyatthebeginningofadevelopmentthatmaytransportnet-seaandlandtransport.ChristopherCockerell"scraftcanestablishtransportworksinlargeareaswithpoorcommunicationssuchasAfricaorAustralia;itcanbecomea"flyingfruit-bowl",carryingbananasfromtheplantationstotheports,gianthovercraftlinerscouldspantheAtlantic;andtherailwayofthefuturemaywellbethe"hovertrain",ridingonitsaircushionoverasinglerail,whichitnevertouches,atspeedsupto300m.p.h.--thepossibilitiesappearunlimited.
Lesson36
Ourknowledgeoftheoceansahundredyearsagowasconfinedtothetwo-dimensionalshapeofthesea-surfaceandthehazardsofnavigationpresentedbytheirregularitiesindepthoftheshallowwaterclosetotheland.Theopenseawasdeepandmysterious,andanyonewhogavemorethanapassingthoughttothebottomconfinesoftheoceansprobablyassumedthatthesea-bedwasflat.SirJamesClarkRosshadobtainedasoundingofover2,400fathomsin1836butitwasnotuntil1800,whenH.M.S.PorcupinewasputatthedisposaloftheRoyalSocietyforseveralcruises,thataseriesofdeepsoundingswasobtainedintheAtlanticandthefirstsampleswerecollectedbydredgingthebottom.ShortlyafterthisthefamousH.M.S.Challengerexpeditionestablishedthestudyofthesea-floorasasubjectworthyofthemostqualifiedphysicistsandgeologists.AburstofactivityassociatedwiththelayingofsubmarinecablessoonconfirmedtheChallenger"sobservationthatmanypartsoftheoceanweretwotothreemilesdeep,andtheexistenceofunderwaterfeaturesofconsiderablemagnitude.
TodayenoughsoundingsareavailabletoenableareliefmapoftheAtlantictobedrawnandweknowsomethingofthegreatvarietyofthesea-bed"stopography.Sincetheseacoversthegreaterpartoftheearth"ssurfaceitisquitereasonabletoregardthesea-floorasthebasicformofthecrustoftheearth,withsuperimposeduponitthecontinents,togetherwiththeislandsandotherfeaturesoftheoceans.Thecontinentsformruggedtablelandswhichstandnearlythreemilesabovetheflooroftheopenocean.Fromtheshore-lineouttoadistancewhichmaybeanywherefromafewmilestoafewhundredmilesrunsthegentleslopeofthecontinentalshelf,geologicallypartofthecontinents.Therealdividing-linebetweencontinentsandoceansoccursatthefootofasteeperslope.Thiscontinentalslopeusuallystartsataplacesomewhereneartheice-fathommarkandinthecourseofafewhundredmilesreachesthetrueocean-floorat2,500-3,000fathoms.Theslopeaveragesabout1in30,butcontainssteep,probablyvertical,cliffs,andgentlesediment-coveredterraces,andnearitslowerreachesthereisalongtailing-offwhichisalmostcertainlytheresultofmaterialtransportedouttodeepwaterafterbeingerodedfromthecontinentalmasses.

Lesson37
TheVictorians,realizingthatthegreatesthappinessaccordedtomanisthatprovidedbyahappymarriage,endeavouredtopretendthatalltheirmarriageswerehappy.We,forourpart,admittingthefactthatnofeatofintelligenceandcharacterissoexactingasthatrequiredoftwopeoplewhodesiretolivepermanentlytogetheronabasisofamity,areobsessedbytheproblemofhowtorenderthebasicfactsofcohabitationsimplerandmorereasonable,inorderthatunhappymarriagesmaylessfrequentlyresult.TheVictorianswouldhaveconsideredit"painful"or"unpleasant"wereonetopointoutthatonlyfourmarriagesoutofeverytenareanythingbutforcedservitudes.Weourselvesstartfromthisveryassumptionandtrytobuildfromitatheoryofmoresensiblerelationsbetweenthesexes.OfallformsofarrantuntruthfulnessVictorianoptimismappearstometohavebeenthemostcowardlyandthemostdamaging.
Truth,therefore,isanattitudeofthemind.Itisimportant,ifonedoesnotwishtoinconvenienceandtoboreone"sfriends,nottotelllies.Butitismoreimportantnottothinklies,ortoslideintothosemechanicalanduntruthfulhabitsofthoughtwhicharesopleasantandsoeasyasdescentstomentalineptitude.Thevictorianhabitofmind(whichIconsidertohavebeenabadhabitofmindwasundulypreoccupiedbywhatwassociallyandmorallyconvenient.Convenienceis,however,inallaffairsoflife,anexecrabletestofvalue.Oneshouldhavethecouragetothinkuncomfortably,sinceitisonlybyrejectingtheconvenientthatonecancometothinkthetruth.Not,afterall,thatthereisanysuchthingastruth.Atbestwecanapproachtosomerelativeapproximation.Ontheotherhand,thereissurelysuchathingasuntruth.Oneisgenerallyawarewhenonehassaidsomething,oractedinsomewaywhichhasleftonotherpeopleanimpressionnotstrictlyinaccordancewiththefacts.Oneisgenerallyaware,also.whenonehasthrustasideaninconvenientthoughtandslidintoitsplaceanotherthoughtwhichisconvenient.One"sawarenessintheformercaseisingeneralmoreacutethaninthelatter,sincewearemoreonthelook-outfortheliesweutterthanforthosewemerelythink.Infact,however,itistheuntruthfulthoughtwhichisthemoreviciousofthetwo.Spokenliesareinvariablytiresomeandmayactuallybedishonest.Butcontinuouslyinginthemind,adiseasetowhichtheAnglo-Saxonispeculiarlyexposed,spellsthedestructionofhumanthoughtandcharacter.
Lesson38
Appreciationofsculpturedependsupontheabi8litytorespondtoforminthreedimensions.Thatisperhapswhysculpturehasbeendescribedasthemostdifficultofallarts;certainlyitismoredifficultthantheartswhichinvolveappreciationofflatforms,shapeinonlytwodimensions.Manymorepeopleare"form-blind"thancolour-blind.Thechildlearningtosee,firstdistinguishesonlytwo-dimensionalshape;itcannotjudgedistances,depths.Later,foritspersonalsafetyandpracticalneeds,ithastodevelop(partlybymeansoftouchtheabilitytojudgeroughlythree-dimensionaldistances.Buthavingsatisfiedtherequirementsofpracticalnecessity,mostpeoplegonofurther.Thoughtheymayattainconsiderableaccuracyintheperceptionofflatform,theydonotmakethefurtherintellectualandemotionaleffortneededtocomprehendforminitsfullspatialexistence.
Thisiswhatthesculptormustdo.Hemuststrivecontinuallytothinkof,anduse,forminitsfullspatialcompleteness.Hegetsthesolidshape,asitwere,insidehishead--hethinksofit,whateveritssize,asifhewereholdingitcompletelyenclosedinthehollowofhishand.Hementallyvisualizesacomplexformfromallrounditself;heknowswhilehelooksatonesidewhatthe

othersideislike;heidentifieshimselfwithitscentreofgravity,itsmass,itsweight;herealizesitsvolume,asthespacethattheshapedisplacesintheair.Andthesensitiveobserverofsculpturemustalsolearntofeelshapesimplyasshape,notasdescriptionorreminiscence.Hemust,forexample,perceiveaneggasasimplesinglesolidshape,quiteapartfromitssignificanceasfood,orfromtheliteraryideathatitwillbecomeabird.Andsowithsolidssuchasashell,anut,aplum,apear,atadpole,amushroom,amountainpeak,akidney,acarrot,atree-trunk,abird,abud,alark,aladybird,abulrush,abone.Fromthesehecangoontoappreciatemorecomplexformsofcombinationsofseveralforms.
Lesson39
InhisownlifetimeGalileowasthecentreofviolentcontroversy;butthescientificdusthaslongsincesettled,andtodaywecanseeevenhisfamousclashwiththeInquisitioninsomethinglikeitsproperperspective.But,incontrast,itisonlyinmoderntimesthatGalileohasbecomeaproblemchildforhistoriansofscience.
TheoldviewofGalileowasdelightfullyuncomplicated.Hewas,aboveall,amanwhoexperimented:whodespisedtheprejudicesandbooklearningoftheAristotelians,whoputhisquestionstonatureinsteadoftotheancients,andwhodrewhisconclusionsfearlessly.Hehadbeenthefirsttoturnatelescopetothesky,andhehadseenthereevidenceenoughtooverthrowAristotleandPtolemytogether.HewasthemanwhoclimbedtheLeaningTowerofPisaanddroppedvariousweightsfromthetop,whorolledballsdowninclinedplanes,andthengeneralizedtheresultsofhismanyexperimentsintothefamouslawoffreefall.
Butacloserstudyoftheevidence,supportedbyadeepersenseoftheperiod,andparticularlybyanewconsciousnessofthephilosophicalundercurrentsinthescientificrevolution,hasprofoundlymodifiedthisviewofGalileo.Today,althoughtheoldGalileolivesoninmanypopularwritings,amonghistoriansofscienceanewandmoresophisticatedpicturehasemerged.AtthesametimeoursympathyforBalileo"sopponentshasgrownsomewhat.Histelescopicobservationarejustlyimmortal;theyarousedgreatinterestatthetime,theyhadimportanttheoreticalconsequences,andtheyprovidedastrikingdemonstrationofthepotentialitieshiddenininstrumentsandapparatus.ButcanweblamethosewholookedandfailedtoseewhatGalileosaw,ifwerememberthattouseatelescopeatthelimitofitspowerscallsforlongexperienceandintimatefamiliaritywithone"sinstrument?WasthephilosopherwhorefusedtolookthroughGalileo"stelescopemoreculpablethanthosewhoallegedthatthespiralnebulaeobservedwithLordRosse"sgreattelescopeintheeighteen-fortieswerescratchesleftbythegrinder?WecanperhapsforgivethosewhosaidthemoonsofJupiterwereproducedbyGalileo"sspy-glassifwerecallthatinhisday,asforcenturiesbefore,curvedglasswasthepopularcontrivanceforproducingnottruthbutillusion,untruth;andifasinglecurvedglasswoulddistortnature,howmuchmorewouldapairofthem?
Lesson40
Populationsincreaseanddecreaserelativelynotonlytooneanother,butalsotonaturalresources.Inmostpartsoftheworld,therelationbetweenpopulationandresourcesisalreadyunfavourableandwillprobablybecomeevenmoreunfavourableinthefuture.Thisgrowingpovertyinthemidstofgrowingpovertyconstitutesapermanentmenacetopeace.Andnotonlytopeace,butalsotodemocraticinstitutionsandpersonalliberty.Foroverpopulationisnotcompatib1ewithfreedom.Anunfavourablerelationshipbetweennumbersandresourcestendstomaketheearning

ofalivingalmostintolerablydifficult.Labourismoreabundantthangoods,andtheindividualiscompelledtoworklonghoursforlittlepay.Nosurplusofaccumulatedpurchasingpowerstandsbetweenhimandthetyranniesofunfriendlynatureoroftheequallyunfriendlywieldersofpoliticalandeconomicpower.Democracyis,amongotherthings,theabilitytosay"no"totheboss.Butamancannotsay"no"totheboss,unlessheissureofbeingabletoeatwhentheboss"sfavourhasbeenwithdrawn.Andhecannotbecertainofhisnextmealunlessheownsthemeansofproducingenoughwealth,forhisfamilytoliveon,orhasbeenabletoaccumulateasurplusoutofpastwages,orhasachanceofmovingtovirginterritories,wherehecanmakeafreshstart.Inanovercrowdedcountry,veryfewpeopleownenoughtomakethemfinanciallyindependent;veryfewareinapositiontoaccumulatepurchasingpower;andthereisnofreeland.Moreover,inanycountrywherepopulationpressesharduponnaturalresources,thegeneraleconomicsituationisapttobesoprecariousthatgovernmentcontrolofcapitalandlabour,productionandconsumption,becomesinevitable.Itisnoaccidentthatthetwentiethcenturyshouldbethecenturyofhighlycentralizedgovernmentsandtotalitariandictatorships;ithadtobesoforthesimplereasonthatthetwentiethcenturyisthecenturyofplanetaryovercrowding.
Lesson41
Educationisoneofthekeywordsofourtime.Amanwithoutaneducation,manyofusbelieve,isanunfortunatevictimofadversecircumstancesdeprivedofoneofthegreatesttwentieth-centuryopportunities.Convincedoftheimportanceofeducation,modernstates"invest"ininstitutionsoflearningtogetback"interest"intheformofalargegroupofenlightenedyoungmenandwomenwhoarepotentialleaders.Education,withitscyclesofinstructionsocarefullyworkedout,punctuatedbytext-books--thosepurchasablewellsofwisdom--whatwouldcivilizationbelikewithoutitsbenefits?
Somuchiscertain:thatwewouldhavedoctorsandpreachers,lawyersanddefendants,marriagesandbirths--butourspiritualoutlookwouldbedifferent.Wewouldlaylessstresson"factsandfigures"andmoreonagoodmemory,onappliedpsychology,andonthecapacityofamantogetalongwithhisfellow-citizens.Ifoureducationalsystemwerefashionedafteritsbooklesspastwewouldhavethemostdemocraticformof"college"imaginable.Amongthepeoplewhomweliketocallsavagesallknowledgeinheritedbytraditionissharedbyall;itistaughttoeverymemberofthetribesothatinthisrespecteverybodyis,equallyequippedforlife.
Itistheidealconditionofthe"equalstart"whichonlyourmostprogressiveformsofmoderneducationtrytoregain.Inprimitiveculturestheobligationtoseekandtoreceivethetraditionalinstructionisbindingtoall.Thereareno"illiterates"--ifthetermcanbeappliedtopeopleswithoutascript--whileourowncompulsoryschoolattendancebecamelawinGermanyin1642,inFrancein1806,andinEnglandin1876,andisstillnon-existentinanumberof"civilized"nations.Thisshowshowlongitwasbeforewedeemeditnecessarytomakesurethatallourchildrencouldshareintheknowledgeaccumulatedbythe"happyfew"duringthepastcenturies.
Educationinthewildernessisnotamatterofmonetarymeans.Allareentitledtoanequalstart.Thereisnoneofthehurrywhich,inoursociety,oftenhampersthefulldevelopmentofagrowingpersonality.There,achildgrowsupundertheever-presentattentionofhisparents,thereforethejunglesandthesavannahsknowofno"juveniledelinquency."Nonecessityofmakingalivingawayfromhomeresultsinneglectofchildren,andnofatherisconfrontedwithhisinabilityto"buy"aneducationforhischild.

Lesson42
Parentsareoftenupsetwhentheirchildrenpraisethehomesoftheirfriendsandregarditasaslurontheirowncooking,orcleaning,orfurniture,andoftenarefoolishenoughtolettheadolescentsseethattheyareannoyed.Theymayevenaccusethemofdisloyalty,ormakesomespitefulremarkaboutthefriends"parents.Suchalossofdignityanddescentintochildishbehaviouronthepartoftheadultsdeeplyshockstheadolescents,andmakesthemresolvethatinfuturetheywillnottalktotheirparentsabouttheplacesorpeopletheyvisit.Beforeverylongtheparentswillbecomplainingthatthechildissosecretiveandnevertellsthemanything,buttheyseldomrealizethattheyhavebroughtthisonthemselves.
Disillusionmentwiththeparents,howevergoodandadequatetheymaybebothasparentsandasindividuals,istosomedegreeinevitable.Mostchildrenhavesuchahighidealoftheirparents,unlesstheparentsthemselveshavebeenunsatisfactory,thatitcahardlyhopetostanduptoarealisticevaluation.Parentswouldbegreatlysurprisedanddeeplytouchediftheyrealizehowmuchbelieftheirchildrenusuallyhaveintheircharacterandinfallibility,andhowmuchthisfaithmeanstoachild.Ifparentswerepreparedforthisadolescentreaction,andrealizedthatitwasasignthatthechildwasgrowingupanddevelopingvaluablepowersofobservationandindependentjudgement,theywouldnotbesohurt,andthereforewouldnotdrivethechildintooppositionbyresentingandresistingit.
Theadolescent,withhispassionforsincerity,alwaysrespectsaparentwhoadmitsthatheiswrong,orignorant,oreventhathehasbeenunfairorunjust.Whatthechildcannotforgiveistheparents"refusaltoadmitthesechargesifthechildknowsthemtobetrue.Victorianparentsbelievedthattheykepttheirdignitybyretreatingbehindanunreasoningauthoritarianattitude;infactheydidnothingofthekind,butchildrenwerethentoocowedtoletthemknowhowtheyreallyfelt.Todaywetendtogototheotherextreme,butonthewholethisisahealthierattitudebothforthechildandtheparent.Itisalwayswiserandsafertofaceuptoreality,howeverpainfulitmaybeatthemoment.
Lesson43
Faithincontrollednuclearfissionisnowbeingshownbytheconstructionofatomicpowerstations.InBritain,CalderHallonthecoastofCumberlandfirstmadeitscontributiontotheNationalElectricitygridin1957.Subsequentlyachainofnuclearpowerstationswasplanned.Ofnecessitytheyaresitednearthecoastsortidalwaterbecauseoftheneedofmuchwaterforcoolingandacertaindischargeofpossibleradioactiveeffluent.Atomicpowerisassociatedinthepublicmindwiththedestructiveforceofatombombsandpartlyforthisreason,thoughitisclaimedthatthereisnodangertobeassociatedwithatomicpowerstations,theyarebeingsitedawayfrompopulouscentres.
Thepresentpositionisthatthethreemainsourcesofpowerarecoal,oilandwaterpower.Wesometimesrefertoelectricity,gasorpetrolasiftheyweretheactualsourceofpower,forgettingthatelectricitymustbegeneratedbytheconsumptionofcoaloroilorbytheutilizationofwaterpower,whilstcoke,gasandpetrolareexamplesofsecondaryfuelsbywhichcoalandoilmaybemoreeffectivelyused.
Wherealternativesourcesofpowerareavailabletherearesomemarkedcontrastsinhandling.Thebulkandweightofcoalrequiredinthemajorityofmanufacturingindustriesislargeincomparisonwiththebulkandweightofotherrawmaterials.Thisisnotalwaystrue--waswiththe

manufactureofpigironandsteelfromlow-gradeironores--butitdidleadtotheconcentrationofindustrialdevelopmentsonthecoal-fields,aphenomenonwellseeninsuchcountriesasBritainwheretheIndustrialRevolutioncamebeforethedaysofoilorelectricity.Coalbeingasolidmustbedistributedmainlybyrailorwater.
Bywayofcontrastoilcanbetransportedlargedistancesbypipelinebutoverseasmovementhasinvolvedbuildingoflargenumbersoftankers,includingnow
someofthelargestvesselsafloat.Unlesssuitableonothergroundsoilfieldshavenotbecomeindustrialregions;onthecontrarytheoilindustryismarkedbyacertainamountofsmellandanelementofdanger,hencethesitingofrefineriesatadistancefrompopulationcentres.Itisnotalwaysrealizedthattheownersofpipelinescanhandletheoilofdifferentcustomers,sendingitthroughatdifferent,periods.Naturalgascanalsobetransportedlargedistancesbypipe.Earlyin1959Britainreceivedthefirstshipcargoofnaturalgas----liquefiedforthepurposeoftransport.
Lesson44
Ifanationisessentiallydisunited,itislefttothegovernmenttoholdittogether.Thisincreasestheexpenseofgovernment,andreducescorrespondinglytheamountofeconomicresourcesthatcouldbeusedfordevelopingthecountry,Anditshouldnotbeforgottenhowsmallthoseresourcesareinapoorandbackwardcountry.Wherethecostofgovernmentishigh,resourcesfordevelopmentarecorrespondinglylow.
Thismaybeillustratedbycomparingthepositionofanationwiththatofaprivatebusinessenterprise.Anenterprisehastoincurcertaincostsandexpensesinordertostayinbusiness.Forourpurposes,weareconcernedonlywithonekindofcost--thecostofmanagingandadministeringthebusiness.Suchadministrativeoverheadinabusinessisanalogoustothecostofgovernmentinanation.Theadministrativeoverheadofabusinessislowtotheextentthateveryoneworkinginthebusinesscan,betrustedtobehaveinawaythatbestpromotestheinterestsofthefirm.Iftheycaneachbetrustedtotakesuchresponsibilities,andtoexercisesuchinitiativeasfallswithintheirsphere,thenadministrativeoverheadwillbelow.Itwillbelowbecauseitwillbenecessarytohaveonlyonemanlookingaftereachjob,withouthavinganothermantocheckuponwhatheisdoing,keephiminline,andreportonhimtosomeoneelse.Butifnoonecanbetrustedtoactinaloyalandresponsiblemannertowardshisjob,thenthebusinesswillrequirearmiesofadministrators,checkers,andforemen,andadministrativeoverheadwillrisecorrespondingly.Asadministrativeoverheadrises,sotheearningsofthebusiness,aftermeetingtheexpenseofadministration,willfall;andthebusinesswillhavelessmoneytodistributeasdividendsorinvestdirectlyinitsfutureprogressanddevelopment.
Itispreciselythesamewithanation.Totheextentthatthepeoplecanbereliedupontobehaveinaloyalandresponsiblemanner,thegovernmentdoesnotrequirearmiesofpoliceandcivilservantstokeeptheminorder.Butifanationisdisunited,thegovernmentcannotbesurethattheactionsofthepeoplewillbeintheinterestsofthenation;anditwillhavetowatch,check,andcontrolthepeopleaccordingly.Adisunitednationthereforehastoincurundulyhighcostsofgovernment.
Lesson45
Attheageoftwelveyears,thehumanbodyisatitsmostvigorous.Ithasyettoreachitsfullsizeandstrength,anditsownerhisorherfullintelligence;butatthisagethelikelihoodofdeathis

least.Earlierwewereinfantsandyoungchildren,andconsequentlymorevulnerable;later,weshallundergoaprogressivelossofourvigourandresistancewhich,thoughimperceptibleatfirst,willfinallybecomesosteepthatwecanlivenolonger,howeverwellwelookafterourselves,andhoweverwellsociety,andourdoctors,lookafterus.Thisdeclineinvigourwiththepassingoftimeiscalledageing.Itisoneofthemostunpleasantdiscoverieswhichweallmakethatwemustdeclineinthisway,thatifweescapewars,accidentsanddiseasesweshalleventuallydieofoldage,andthatthishappensataratewhichdifferslittlefrompersontoperson,sothatthereareheavyoddsinfavourofourdyingbetweentheagesofsixty-fiveandeighty.Someofuswilldiesooner,afewwilllivelonger--onintoaninthortenthdecade.Butthechancesareagainstit,andthereisavirtuallimitonhowlongwecanhopetoremainalive,howeverluckyandrobustweare.
Normalpeopletendtoforgetthisprocessunlessanduntiltheyareremindedofit.Wearesofamiliarwiththefactthatmanages,thatpeoplehaveforyearsassumedthattheprocessoflosingvigourwithtime,ofbecomingmorelikelytodietheolderweget,wassomethingself-evident,likethecoolingofahotkettleorthewearing-outofapairofshoes.Theyhavealsoassumedthatallanimals,andprobablyotherorganismssuchastrees,oreventheuniverseitself,mustinthenatureofthings"wearout".Mostanimalswecommonlyobservedoinfactageaswedoifgiventhechancetolivelongenough;andmechanicalsystemslikeawoundwatchorthesun,doinfactrunoutofenergyinaccordancewiththesecondlawofthermodynamics(whetherthewholeuniversedoessoisamootpointatpresent.ButthesearenotanalogoustowhathappenswhenmanagesArun-downwatchisstillawatchandcanberewound.Anoldwatch,bycontrast,becomessowornandunreliablethatiteventuallyisnotworthmending.Butawatchcouldneverrepairitselfitdoesnotconsistoflivingparts,onlyofmetal,whichwearsawaybyfriction.Wecould,atonetime,repairourselveswellenough,atleast,toovercomeallbutthemostinstantlyfatalillnessesanaccidents.Betweentwelveandeightyyearswegraduallylosethispower;anillnesswhichattwelvewouldknockusover,ateightycanknockusout,andintoourgrave.Ifwecouldstayasvigorousasweareattwelve,itwouldtakeabout700yearsforhalfofustodie,andanother700forthesurvivorstobereducebyhalfagain.
Lesson46
Aftermillenniaofgrowthsoslowthateachgenerationhardlynoticedit,thecitiesaresuddenlyracingoffineverydirection.Theworldpopulationgoesupbytwopercentayear,citypopulationgoesupbyfourpercentayear,butinbigcitiestheratemaybeasmuchasfiveandsixpercentayear.Togiveonlyoneexampleofalmostvisibleacceleration,AthenstodaygrowsbythreedwellingsAnd100squaremetresofroadeveryhour.Thereisnoreasontobelievethatthispacewillslacken.Astechnologygraduallyswallowsupallformsofwork,industrialandagricultural,theruralareasaregoingtoshrink,justastheyhaveshrunkinBritain,andthevastmajorityoftheirpeoplewillmoveintothecity.Infact,inBritainnowonlyaboutfourorfivepercentofpeopleliveinruralareasanddependuponthem;allthroughthedevelopingworldthevanguardoftheruralexodushasreachedtheurbanfringesalready,andtheretheyhuddle,migrantsinthefavellasandbarriosofLatinAmerica,inshantytownsinAfrica,inthosehorrifyingencampmentsoneseesontheoutskirtsofCalcuttaandBombay.Weareheadingtowardsanurbanworld.
Thisenormousincreasewillgoaheadwhateverwedo,andwehavetorememberthatthenewcitiesdevourspace.Peoplenowacquirefarmoregoodsandthings.Thereisagreaterdensityofhouseholdgoods;theydemandmoreservicessuchassewageanddrainage.Aboveallthecar

changeseverything:risingincomesandrisingpopulationscanmakeurbancardensityincreasebysomethinglikefourandfivepercentinadecade;trafficflowsrisetofillwhateverscaleofhighwaysareprovidedforthem.Thecaralsohasacuriousambivalence:itcreatesandthenitdestroysmobility.Thecartemptspeoplefurtheroutandthengivesthemtheappallingproblemofgettingback.ItmakesthembelievetheycanspendSundayinBrighton,butmakesitimpossibleforthemtoreturnbefore,say,twointhemorning.Peoplegofurtherandfurtherawaytoreachopenairandcountrysidewhichcontinuouslyrecedesfromthem,andjustastheirworkingweeksdeclineandtheybegintohavemoretimeforleisure,theyfindtheycannotgettotheopenspacesortherecreationorthebeacheswhichtheynowhavethetimetoenjoy.
Recentlysomestudiesweremadeinthebehaviourofmicewhenexposedtomorethanacertaindegreeofdensity,frustration,andnoise,andthemicejustbecamederanged.Ithinksomesociologistswonderwhetheritmightnotbethesameformen.Thiscombinationofveryhighdensityofpopulation,goodsandservices,andmachines,allincreasingwithalmostbruta1speed,doesaccountforsomereallyantisocialtendenciesinmodernurbangrowth.
Lesson47
ThemodernPlato,likehisancientcounterpart,hasanunboundedcontemptforpoliticiansandstatesmenandpartyleaderswhoarenotuniversitymen.Hefindspoliticsadirtygame,andonlyentersthemreluctantlybecauseheknowsthatattheveryleastheandhisfriendsarebetterthanthepresentgang.Broughtupinthetraditionsoftherulingclasses,hehasanaturalpityforthecommonpeoplewhomhehaslearnttoknowasservants,andobservedfromadistanceattheirworkinthefactory,attheirplayintheparksandholidayresorts.Hehasnevermixedwiththemorspokentothemonequalterms,buthasdemandedandgenerallyreceivedarespectduetohispositionandsuperiorintelligence.Heknowsthatiftheytrusthim,hecangivethemthehappinesswhichtheycrave.Amanofculture,hegenuinelydespisestheself-madeindustrialistandnews-paper-king:withamodestprofessionalsalaryandalittleprivateincomeofhisown,heregardsmoney-makingasvulgarandavoidsallostentation.Industryandfinanceseemtohimtobeactivitiesunworthyofgentlemen,although,alas,manyareforcedbyexigenciesofcircumstancetotakesomepartinthem.intellectual,hegentlylaughsatthesuperstitionsofmostChristians,butattendschurchregularlybecauseheseestheimportanceoforganizedreligionforthemaintenanceofsoundmoralityamongthelowerorders,andbecausehedislikesthescepticismandmaterialismofradicalteachers.Hisgenuinepassionsareforliteratureandthephilosophyofscienceandhewouldgladlyspendallhistimeinstudyingthem.Buttheplightoftheworldcompelshisunwillingattention,andwhenheseesthathumanstupidityandgreedareabouttoplunge.Europeintochaosanddestroythemostgloriouscivilizationwhichtheworldhasknown,hefeelsthatitishightimeformenofgoodsenseandgoodwilltointerveneandtotakepoliticsoutofthehandsoftheplutocratsoftheRightandthewoolly-mindedidealistsoftheLeft.Sinceheandhiskindaretheonlyrepresentativesofdecencycombinedwithintelligence,theymuststepdownintothearenaandsavethemassesforthemselves.
Lesson48
Ihaveknownveryfewwriters,butthoseIhaveknown,andwhomIrespected,confessatoncethattheyhavelittleideawheretheyarcgoingwhentheyfirstsetpentopaper.Theyhaveacharacter,perhapstwo,theyareinthatconditionofeagerdiscomfortwhichpassesforinspiration,

alladmitradicalchangesofdestinationoncethejourneyhasbegun;one,tomycertainknowledge,spentninemonthsonanovelaboutKashmir,thenresetthewholethingintheScottishHighlands.Ineverheardofanyonemakinga"skeleton",asweweretaughtatschool.Inthebreakingandremaking,inthetiming,interweaving,beginningafresh,thewritercomestodiscernthingsinhismaterialwhichwerenotconsciouslyinhismindwhenhebegan.Thisorganicprocess,oftenleadingtomomentsofextraordinaryself-discovery,isofanindescribablefascination.Ablurredimageappears,headdsabrushstrokeandanother,anditisgone;butsomethingwasthere,andhewillnotresttillhehascapturedit.Sometimestheyeastwithinawriteroutlivesabookhehaswritten.Ihaveheardofwriterswhoreadnothingbuttheirownbooks,likeadolescentstheystandbeforethemirror,andstillcannotfathomtheexactoutlineofthevisionbeforethem.Forthesamereason,writerstalkinterminablyabouttheirownbooks,winklingouthiddenmeanings,super-imposingnewones,beggingresponsefromthosearoundthem.Ofcourseawriterdoingthisismisunderstood:hemightaswelltrytoexplainacrimeoraloveaffair.Heisalso,incidentally,anunforgivablebore.
Thistemptationtocoverthedistancebetweenhimselfandthereader,tostudyhisimageinthesightofthosewhodonotknowhim,canbehisundoing:hehasbeguntowritetoplease.
AyoungEnglishwritermadethepertinentobservationayearortwobackthatthetalentgoesintothefirstdraft,andtheartintothedraftsthatfollow.Forthisreasonalsothewriter,likeanyotherartist,hasnorestingplace,nocrowdormovementinwhichhemaytakecomfort,nojudgmentfromoutsidewhichcanreplacethejudgmentfromwithin.Awritermakesorderoutoftheanarchyofhisheart;hesubmitshimselftoamoreruthlessdisciplinethananycriticdreamedof,andwhenheflirstswithfame,heistakingtimeofffromlivingwithhimself,fromthesearchforwhathisworldcontainsatitsinmostpoint.
Lesson49
Rocketsandartificialsatellitescangofarabovetheionosphere,andevenescapefromtheEarth.Yettheyarecomplexandexpensive,andintheirpresentstageofdevelopmenttheycannotliftmassivetelescopes,keepthemsteadywhiletheobservationsarebeingcarriedout,andthenreturnthemsafely.Balloonsaremucheasiertohandle,andarealsovastlycheaper.Theirmainlimitationisthattheyareincapableofrisingtotheionosphere.Aheightofbetween80,000and90,000feetisasmuchascanreasonablybeexpected,andsoballoon-borneinstrumentscancontributelittletoeitherultra-violetastronomyorX-rayastronomy.
Allthesame,theballoonhasmuchtobesaidinitsfavour,sinceitcanatleastcarryheavyequipmentabovemostoftheatmosphericmass--thuseliminatingblurringandunsteadinessoftheimages.Moreover,water-vapourandcarbondioxideinthelowerairabsorbmostoftheinfra-redradiationssenttousfromtheplanets.Balloonascentsovercomethishazardwithease.
Hot-airballoonsdatebacktotheyear1783,andwithinafewmonthsofthefirstflightaFrenchscientist,Charles,wentuptwomilesinafreeballoon.Yetthereislittleresemblancebetweenthesecrudevehiclesandamodernscientificballoon,whichhasbynowbecomeanimportantresearchtool.
ThemaindevelopmenthasbeencarriedoutbyM.SchwarlschildandhisteamatPrincetonUniversityintheUnitedStates,incollaborationwiththeUnitedStatesNavy,theNationalScienceFoundation,andtheNationalAero-nauticsandSpaceAdministration.The"Stratoscope"flightsof

1959,concernedmainlywithstudiesoftheSun,wereremarkablysuccessful,andtheprojecthasnowbeenextended.WithStratoscopeII,theoverallheightfromthetelescopetothetopofthelaunchballoonis666feet,theballoonstogetherweighovertwotons,andanothertwotonsofballastarecarriedforlaterreleaseifheighthasbemaintainedduringthenight.Thetelescope,plusitscontrolsweighsthree-and-a-halftons.Twolargeparachutesarcalsocarried;incaseofemergency,theinstrumentsandtheirrecordscanbeseparatedfromthemainballoonsystem,andbroughtdowngently.Manyoftheradioandelectronicdevicesusedaresimilartothoseofartificialsatellites.
Lesson50
Inmediaevaltimesriversweretheveinsofthebodypoliticaswellaseconomic.Boundariesbetweenstatesorshires,theywerecrossedbyfordswhichbecamethesitesoftowns,orbybridgeswhichwereoftenpointsofbattle.Uponriversthepeopleofthattimedependedforfood,powerandtransport.
Inourdayfisharecaughtintheseaandbroughttousbyrailandlorry;onlytheanglerstillthinksfresh-waterfishimportant,andpollutionofriversdriveshimintosmallerandsmallerreachesinwhichtopractisehissport.Butinearliertimes,whenseafishwereeatenonlybythosewholivedontheseacoast,whenmeatwasobtainableonlyforpartoftheyear,andwhenfastswerefrequentanduniversallypractised,riverfishplayedanimportantpartinthenationallife.Everyabbeyandgreatman"shousehaditsfishpond,andacrosstheriversgreatandsmallstretchedthefishweirs,usuallymadeofstakesandnetsorbasket-work.Betweentheownersofthefisheriesandthebargemasterwhoneededanunimpededpassagecontinuouswarwasfought,tilltheimportanceoffresh-waterfishlessenedasthepracticeoffastingceasedtobeuniversal,asmeatbe-cameavailablealltheyearround,andasthetransportofseafishinlandbecamepracticable.
Riverswerealsothemostimportantsourceofpower.Everystreamhaditsmills,notonlyforgrindingcorn,butforalltheotherindustrialprocessesofthetime,suchasfulling*clothordrivingthehammersofironworks.Placeddownthebankwhereveraheadofwatercouldbegot,thesemillsweretobefoundonthetinystreamthatranthroughavillage,oronthebiggerriverthatwasalsousedfornavigation.Anartificialcutwasmadefromtherivertobringthewateratproperheighttothewater-wheel,and,inordertomakesureofasupplyofwateratallseasons,themill-ownerusuallybuiltaweiracrosstherivertoholdbackthewaterandsoformanartificialreservoir.Iftheriverwerenavigable,thecentreofsuchaweirwasmadeofplanksheldverticallybycrossbeamssothattheycouldberemovedwhenitwasnecessarytopassabarge,orwasfittedwithasinglepairofgates.Suchweirswerecalledstaunchesorflash-locks;theydidnotdisappearfromthebiggerriverstillpresenttimes,andmaystillbeseenintheFens.*Cleansingandthickening.
Lesson51
Twomaintechniqueshavebeenusedfortrainingelephants,whichwemaycallrespectivelythetoughandthegentle.Theformermethodsimplyconsistsofsettinganelephanttoworkandbeatinghimuntilhedoeswhatisexpectedofhim.Apartfromanymoralconsiderationsthisisastupidmethodoftraining,foritproducesaresentfulanimalwhoatalaterstagemaywellturnman-killer.Thegentlemethodrequiresmorepatienceintheearlystages,butproducesacheerful,good-temperedelephantwhowillgivemanyyearsofloyalservice.

Thefirstessentialinelephanttrainingistoassigntotheanimalasinglemahoutwhowillbeentirelyresponsibleforthejob.Elephantsliketohaveonemasterjustasdogsdo,andarecapableofaconsiderabledegreeofpersonalaffection.Thereareevenstoriesofhalf-trainedelephantcalveswhohaverefusedtofeedandpinedtodeathwhenbysomeunavoidablecircumstancetheyhavebeendeprivedoftheirowntrainer.Suchextremecasesmustprobablybetakenwithagrainofsalt,buttheydounderlinethegeneralprinciplethattherelation-shipbetweenelephantandmahoutisthekeytosuccessfultraining.
Themosteconomicalagetocaptureanelephantfortrainingisbetweenfifteenandtwentyyears,foritisthenalmostreadytoundertakeheavyworkandcanbegintoearnitskeepstraightaway.Butanimalsofthisagedonoteasilybecomesubservienttoman,andaveryfirmhandmustbeemployedintheearlystages.Thecaptiveelephant,stillropedtoatree,plungesandscreamseverytimeamanapproaches,andforseveraldayswillprobablyrefuseallfoodthroughangerandfear.Sometimesatameelephantistetherednearbytogivethewildoneconfidence,andinmostcasesthecaptivegraduallyquietensdownandbeginstoacceptitsfood.Thenextstageistogettheelephanttothetrainingestablishment,aticklishbusinesswhichisachievedwiththeaidoftwotameelephantsropedtothecaptiveoneitherside.
Whenseveralelephantsarebeingtrainedatonetimeitiscustomaryforthenewarrivaltobeplacedbetweenthestallsoftwocaptiveswhosetrainingisalreadywelladvanced.Itisthenleftcompletelyundisturbedwithplentyoffoodandwatersothatitcanabsorbtheatmosphereofitsnewhomeandseethatnothingparticularlyalarmingishappeningtoitscompanions.Whenitiseatingnormallyitsowntrainingbegins.Thetrainerstandsinfrontoftheelephantholdingalongstickwithasharpmetalpoint.Twoassistants,mountedortameelephants,controlthecaptivefromeitherside,whileothersrubtheirhandsoverhisskintotheaccompanimentofamonotonousandsoothingchant.Thisifsupposedtoinducepleasurablesensationsintheelephant,anditseffectsarerein-forcedbytheuseofendearingepithets,suchas"ho!myson",or"ho!myfather",or"mymother",accordingtotheageandsexofthecaptive.Theelephantisnotimmediatelysusceptibletosuchblandishments,however,andusuallylashesfiercelywithitstrunkinalldirections.Thesemovementsarecontrolledbythetrainerwiththemetal-pointedstick,andthetrunkeventuallybecomessosorethattheelephantcurlsitupandseldomafterwardsusesitforoffensivepurposes.
Lesson52
Anearthquakecomeslikeathiefinthenight,withoutwarning.Itwasnecessary,therefore,toinventinstrumentsthatneitherslumberednorslept.Somedeviceswerequitesimple.one,forinstance,consistedofrodsofvariouslengthsandthicknesseswhichwouldstanduponendlikeninepins.whenashockcameitshooktherigidtableuponwhichthesestood.Ifitweregentle,onlythemoreunstablerodsfell.Ifitweresevere,theyallfell.Thustherodsbyfalling,andbythedirectioninwhichtheyfell,recordedfortheslumberingscientistthestrengthofashockthatwastooweaktowakenhimandthedirectionfromwhichitcame.
Butinstrumentsfarmoredelicatethanthatwereneededifanyreallyseriousadvancewastobemade.Theidealtobeaimedatwastodeviseaninstrumentthatcouldrecordwithapenonpaperthemovements,ofthegroundorofthetable,asthequakepassedby.WhileIwritemypenmoves,butthepaperkeepsstill.Withpractice,nodoubt,Icouldintimelearntowritebyholdingthestillwhilethepapermoved.Thatsoundsasillysuggestion,butthatwaspreciselytheideaadoptedinsomeoftheearlyinstruments(seismometersforrecordingearthquakewaves.Butwhentable,

penholderandpaperareallmovinghowisitpossibletowritelegibly?Thekeytoasolutionofthatproblemlayinanevery-dayobservation.Whydoesapersonstandinginabusortraintendtofallwhenasuddenstartismade?Itisbecausehisfeetmoveon,buthisheadstaysstill.
Asimpleexperimentwillhelpusalittlefurther.Tieaheavyweightattheendofalongpieceofstring.Withthehandheldhighintheairholdthestringssothattheweightnearlytouchestheground.Nowmovethehandtoandfroandaroundbutnotupanddown.Itwillbefoundthattheweightmovesbutslightlyornotatall.Imagineapenattachedtotheweightinsuchawaythatitspointrestsuponapieceofpaperonthefloor.Imagineanearthquakeshockshakingthefloor,thepaper,youandyourhand.Inthemidstofallthismovementtheweightandthepenwouldbestill.Butasthepapermovedfromsidetosideunderthepenpointitsmovementwouldberecordedininkuponitssurface.Itwasuponthisprinciplethatthefirstinstrumentsweremade,butthepaperwaswrappedroundadrumwhichrotatedslowly.Aslongasallwasstillthependrewastraightline,butwhilethedrumwasbeingshakenthelinethatthepenwasdrawingwriggledfromsidetoside.Theapparatusthusdescribed,however,recordsonlythehorizontalcomponentofthewavemovement,whichis,infact,muchmorecomplicated.Ifwecouldactuallyseethepathdescribedbyaparticle,suchasasandgrainintherock,itwouldbemorelikethatofabluebottlebuzzingroundtheroom;itwouldbeupanddown,toandfroandfromsidetoside.Instrumentshavebeendevisedandcanhesoplacedthatallthreeelementscanberecordedindifferentgraphs.
Whentheinstrumentissituatedatmorethan700milesfromtheearthquakecentre,thegraphicrecordshowsthreewavesarrivingoneaftertheotheratshortintervals.Thefirstrecordsthearrivaloflongitudinalvibrations.Thesecondmarksthearrivaloftransversevibrationswhichtravelmoreslowlyandarriveseveralminutesafterthefirst.Thesetwohavetravelledthroughtheearth.Itwasfromthestudyofthesethatsomuchwaslearntabouttheinterioroftheearth.Thethird,ormainwave,istheslowestandhastravelledroundtheearththroughthesurfacerocks.
Lesson53
TheFrenchForeignLegionwasfoundedbyaRoyalOrdinance,writtenonasmallpieceofofficialFrenchWarOfficenotepaperdatedMarch9th,1831,andsignedbythethenreigningmonarchofFrance,Louis-Philippe.Hehadbeenonthethroneforbarelyeightmonthswhenheauthorizedthismeasure,whichwasasmuchaproductofnecessityasofcarefulplanning,althoughtheremaybedividedviewsonthis.
ThereasonsforformingtheFrenchForeignLegionwereprobablytwofold.InthefirstplacethemenofthedisbandedroyalbodyguardandtheRegimentofHohenlohe,suddenlyturnedlooseontothestreetofacapitalseethingwithun-rest,unemployedandperhapsdisgruntledattheirabruptdismissal,wereapotentiallydangerouselement.Theyweretrainedtotheuseofarms,andshouldtheybecometoolsofthepoliticallyambitiousordiscontentedtheywouldpresentadistinctmenacetothenewregime,notyettoofirmlyestablishedandsureofitself.
ForsometimeParishadbeenswarmingwithcountlessotherdischargedforeignsoldierswhohadservedintheFrencharmyatvarioustimesundertheEmpireandtheRepublic,manyofwhomwereinneedycircumstancesandopentosuggestion,whilstotherswereopenlylookingfortroubleandalwaysreadytotakepartinanydisturbance.Itwasclearlybothexpedientanddesirabletore-movethesedangersasfarawayfromthecapitalaspossible.
Next,theAlgerianadventurehadbegun,anditappearedthatthismightproveexpensiveinlives.ThemoreFrenchmenkilledinNorthAfrica,thelesspopularthegovernmentathomewouldbe,so

ifforeigncannonfodderwasavailablesomuchthebetter.TheAlgerianlandinghadbeenviewedwithmixedfeelingsinapoliticallydividedFrance,buttheredoesnotseemtohavebeen,anymarkedindicationonthepartofthepoliticiansthattheywereunanimousthattheoccupationshouldbeabruptlyterminated;mostwerewaryandmanyapprehensiveastohowtheAlgerianbusinesswouldturnout.
Theformationofaforeignlegionseemedthereforetobeanidealmethodofkillingthesetwobirdswithonestone.Oncetheconditionsweremadecleartheredoesnotseemohavebeenanyseriousopposition.MarshalSoultwasreputedtobethemanbehindtheschemebothforremovingandusingtheunemployedforeignex-soldiers.Hecouldnothavefailedtorecognize,oncetheywereformedintodisciplinedunits,howusefultheywouldbe,bothforgarrisondutyandforactiveoperationsinAlgeria,northefactthatiftheircasualtieswereheavyortheirconditionsnotofthebest,therewouldbenoembarrassingreactionforagitationinFranceontheirbehalf.
TheRoyalOrdinancedecreedthatthereshouldbealegionformedforeignersforserviceoutsideFrance,whichwastobecalledthe"ForeignLegion"anditwastobepartoftheFrencharmyandunderthecontroloftheWarMinister.Itlaiddownthatasfaraspossiblecompaniesshouldbecomposedofmenofthesamenationalityorwhospokeacommonlanguage.AlgeriawasnotspecificallymentionedbutasitwastheonlyscrapofforeignterritoryofanysizepossessedbyFranceatthatmoment,therewasnodoubtastothemeaningofthephrase"outsideFrance".
Intheanxietytogetdubious,restlesscharactersoutofthecountrynoquestionswereaskedastonationality,previousrecordorhistory,andnoproofofidentitywasrequired.Thenameandparticularsgivenbytherecruitwereacceptedatfacevalueandmanygavenomsdeguerre,*forunderstandablereasons.Thusthepracticebegan,andthetraditionstartedof"askingnoquestions".Thistraditionofguaranteeinganonymitybegantodevelopquickly,althoughitwasnotuntillaterthatitwascarriedtotheextremeofdenyingallknowledgeofanyindividualswhowereinitsranksandofrefusingpointblanktoanswerquestionsortoallowanyoutsidecontactwiththelegionnaires.*Pseudonyms.
Lesson54
Wemustconcludefromtheworkofthosewhohavestudiedtheoriginoflife,thatgivenaplanetonlyapproximatelylikeourown,lifeisalmostcertaintostart.OfalltheplanetsinourownsolarsystemwearcnowprettycertaintheEarthistheonlyoneonwhichlifecansurvive.Marsistoodryandpoorinoxygen,Venusfartoohot,andsoisMercury,andtheouterplanetshavetemperaturesnearabsolutezeroandhydrogen-dominatedatmospheres.Butothersuns,starsastheastronomerscallthem,areboundtohaveplanetslikeourown,andasthenumberofstarsintheuniverseissovast,thispossibilitybecomesvirtualcertainty.ThereareonehundredthousandmillionstarsinourownMilkyWayalone,andthentherearethreethousandmillionotherMilkyWays,orGalaxies,intheuniverse.Sothenumberofstarsthatweknowexistisestimatedatabout300millionmillionmillion.
Althoughperhapsonly1percentofthelifethathasstartedsomewherewilldevelopintohighlycomplexandintelligentpatterns,sovastisthenumberofplanetsthatintelligentlifeisboundtobeanaturalpartoftheuniverse.Ifthenwearesocertainthatotherintelligentlifeexistsintheuniverse,whyhavewehadnovisitorsfromouterspaceyet?Firstofall,theymayhavecometothisplanetofoursthousandsormillionsofyearsago,andfoundourthenprevailingprimitive

statecompletelyuninterestingtotheirownadvancedknowledge.
ProfessorRonaldBracewell,aleadingAmericanradio-astronomer,arguedinNaturethatsuchasuperiorcivilization,onavisittoourownsolarsystem,may-haveleftanautomaticmessengerbehindtoawaitthepossibleawakeningofanadvancedcivilization.Suchamessenger,receivingourradioandtelevisionsignals,mightwellre-transmitthembacktoitshome-planet,althoughwhatimpressionanyothercivilizationwouldthusgetfromusisbestleftunsaid.
Butherewecomeupagainstthemostdifficultofallobstaclestocontactwithpeopleonotherplanets--theastronomicaldistanceswhichseparateus.Asareasonableguess,theymight,onanaverage,be100lightyearsaway.(Alightyearisthedistancewhichlighttravelsat186,000milespersecondinoneyear,namely6millionmillionmiles.Radiowavesalsotravelatthespeedoflight,andassumingsuchanautomaticmessengerpickedupourfirstbroadcastsofthe1920"s,themessagetoitshomeplanetisbarelyhalfwaythere.Similarly,ourownPresentprimitivechemicalrockets,thoughgoodenoughtoorbitmen,havenochanceoftransportingustothenearestotherstar,fourlightyearsaway,letalonedistancesoftensorhundredsoflightyears.
Fortunately,thereisa"uniquelyrationalway"forustocommunicatewithotherintelligentbeings,asWalterSullivanhasputitinhisexcellentrecentbook,Wearenotalone.Thisdependsonthepreciseradio-frequencyofthe21-cmwavelength,or1420megacyclespersecond.Itisthenaturalfrequencyofemissionofthehydrogenatomsinspaceandwasdiscoveredbyusin1951;itmustbeknowntoanykindofradio-astronomerintheuniverse.
Oncetheexistenceofthiswave-lengthhadbeendiscovered,itwasnotlongbeforeitsuseastheuniquelyrecognizablebroadcastingfrequencyforinterstellarcommunicationwassuggested.Withoutsomethingofthiskind,searchingforintelligencesonotherplanetswouldbeliketryingtomeetafriendinLondonwithoutaPre-arrangedrendezvousandabsurdlywanderingthestreetsinthehopeofachanceencounter.
Lesson55
Customhasnotbeencommonlyregardedasasubjectofanygreatmoment.Theinnerworkingsofourownbrainswefeeltobeuniquelyworthyofinvestigation,butcustomhaveawayofthinking,isbehaviouratitsmostcommonplace.Asamatteroffact,itistheotherwayaround.Traditionalcustom,takentheworldover,isamassofdetailedbehaviourmoreastonishingthanwhatanyonepersoncaneverevolveinindividualactions,nomatterhowaberrant.Yetthatisarathertrivialaspectofthematter.Thefactoffirst-rateimportanceisthepredominantrolethatcustomplaysinexperienceandinbelief,andtheverygreatvarietiesitmaymanifest.
Nomaneverlooksattheworldwithpristineeyes.Heseesiteditedbyadefinitesetofcustomsandinstitutionsandwaysofthinking.Eveninhisphilosophicalprobingshecannotgobehindthesestereotypes;hisveryconceptsofthetrueandthefalsewillstillhavereferencetohisparticulartraditionalcustoms.JohnDeweyhassaidinallseriousnessthatthepartplayedbycustominshapingthebehaviouroftheindividualasoveragainstanywayinwhichhecanaffecttraditionalcustom,isastheproportionofthetotalvocabularyofhismothertongueoveragainstthosewordsofhisownbabytalkthataretakenupintothevernacularofhisfamily.Whenoneseriouslystudiesthesocialordersthathavehadtheopportunitytodevelopautonomously,thefigurebecomesnomorethananexactandmatter-off-factobservation.Thelifehistoryoftheindividualisfirstandforemostanaccommodationtothepatternsandstandardstraditionallyhandeddowninhiscommunity.Fromthemomentofhisbirththecustomsintowhichheisborn

shapehisexperienceandbehaviour.Bythetimehecantalk,heisthelittlecreatureofhisculture,andbythetimeheisgrownandabletotakepartinitsactivities,itshabitsarehishabits,itsbeliefshisbeliefs,itsimpossibilitieshisimpossibilities.Everychildthatisbornintohisgroupwillsharethemwithhim,andnochildbornintooneontheoppositesideoftheglobecaneverachievethethousandthpart.Thereisnosocialproblemitismoreincumbentuponustounderstandthanthisoftheroleofcustom.Untilweareintelligentastoitslawsandvarieties,themaincomplicatingfactsofhumanlifemustremainunintelligible.
Thestudyofcustomcanbeprofitableonlyaftercertainpreliminarypropositionshavebeenaccepted,andsomeofthesepropositionshavebeenviolentlyopposed.Inthefirstplaceanyscientificstudyrequiresthattherebenopreferentialweightingofoneoranotheroftheitemsintheseriesitselectsforitsconsideration.Inallthelesscontroversialfieldslikethestudyofcactiortermitesorthenatureofnebulae,thenecessarymethodofstudyistogrouptherelevantmaterialandtotakenoteofallpossiblevariantformsandconditions.Inthiswaywehavelearnedallthatweknowofthelawsofastronomy,orofthehabitsofthesocialinsects,letussay.Itisonlyinthestudyofmanhimselfthatthemajorsocialscienceshavesubstitutedthestudyofonelocalvariation,thatofWesterncivilization.
Anthropologywasbydefinitionimpossibleaslongasthesedistinctionsbetweenourselvesandtheprimitive,ourselvesandthebarbarian,ourselvesandthepagan,heldswayoverpeople"sminds.Itwasnecessaryfirsttoarriveatthatdegree,ofsophisticationwherewenolongersetourownbeliefoveragainstourneighbour"ssuperstition.Itwasnecessarytorecognizethattheseinstitutionswhicharebasedonthesamepremises,letussaythesupernatural,mustbeconsideredtogether,ourownamongtherest.
Lesson56
Scienceandtechnologyhavecometopervadeeveryaspectofourlivesand,asaresult,societyischangingataspeedwhichisquiteunprecedented.Thereisagreattechnologicalexplosionaroundus,generatedbyscience.Thisexplosionisalreadyfreeingvastnumbersofpeoplefromtheirtraditionalbondagetonature,andnowatlastwehaveitinourpowertofreemankindonceandforallfromthefearwhichisbasedonwant.Now,forthefirsttime,mancanreasonablybegintothinkthatlifecanbesomethingmorethanagrimstruggleforsurvival.Buteventoday,inspiteofthehighstandardoflivingwhichhasbecomegeneralinthemorefortunateWest,themajorityofpeopleintheworldstillspendnearlyalltheirtimeandenergyinanever-endingstrugglewithnaturetosecurethefoodandsheltertheyneed.Eveninthiselementaryeffortmillionsofhumanbeingseachyeardieunnecessarilyandwastefullyfromhunger,disease,orflood.
Yet,intheWest,scienceandtechnologyhavemadeitpossibleforustohaveaplentifulsupplyoffood,producedbyonlyafractionofthelabourthatwasnecessaryevenafewdecadesago.IntheUnitedStates,forinstance,onemanonthelandproducesmorethanenoughfoodtofeedfifteenmeninthecities,and,infact,thereisasurplusoffoodgrownevenbythissmallproportionoftheAmericanlabourforce.Wehaveconsiderablyextendedourexpectationoflife.Wehaveenrichedourlivesbycreatingphysicalmobilitythroughthemotor-car,thejetaeroplane,andothermeansofmechanicaltransport;andwehaveaddedtoourintellectualmobilitybythetelephone,radio,andtelevision.Notcontentwiththeseadvances,wearenowthrustingforwardtothestars,andtheconquestospacenolongerstrikesusasWellsianorJulesVernian.Andwiththeadventofthenewphaseoftechnologywecallautomation,wehavethepromisebothofgreaterleisureandofeven

greatermaterialandintellectualriches.
Butthisisnotinevitable.Itdependsonautomationbeingadequatelyexploited.Weshallneedtoapplyourscientificandtechnologicalresourcestoliterallyeveryaspectofoursociety,toourcommerce,ourindustry,ourmedicine,ouragriculture,ourtransportation.
Itisfascinatingandencouragingtoobservethedevelopmentofthisimmenseprocess,aprocessinwhichmanappearsallthetimetobeengagedintheactofcreatinganextensionofhimself.Inhisnewtechnologicalsuccessesthisappearsparticularlytrue.Heisextendinghiseyeswithradar;histongueandhisearthroughtelecommunication;hismuscleandbodystructurethroughmechanization.Heextendshisownenergiesbythegenerationandtransmissionofpowerandhisnervoussystemandhisthinkinganddecision-makingfacultiesthroughautomation.Ifthisobservationisaccurate,asIbelieveitis,theimplicationsarefar-reaching.Itmightbereasonabletoconcludethatthedirectionofmodernscienceandtechnologyistowardsthecreationofaseriesofmachine-systemsbasedonmanasamodel.
Lesson57
Inman"searlydays,competitionwithothercreaturesmusthavebeencritical.Butthisphaseofourdevelopmentisnowfinished.Indeed,welackpracticeandexperiencenowadaysindealingwithprimitiveconditions.Iamsurethat,withoutmodernweapons,Iwouldmakeaverypoorshowofdisputingtheownershipofacavewithabear,andinthisIdonotthinkthatIstandalone.Thelastcreaturetocompetewithmanwasthemosquito.Buteventhemosquitohasbeensubduedbyattentiontodrainageandbychemicalsprays.
Competitionbetweenourselves,personagainstperson,communityagainstcommunity,stillpersists,however;anditisasfierceasiteverwas.Butthecompetitionofmanagainstmanisnotthesimpleprocessenvisionedinbiology.Itisnotasimplecompetitionforafixedamountoffooddeterminedbythephysicalenvironment,becausetheenvironmentthatdeterminesourevolutionisnolongeressentiallyphysical.Ourenvironmentischieflyconditionedbythethingswebelieve.MoroccoandCaliforniaarebitsoftheEarthinverysimilarlatitudes,bothonthewestcoastsofcontinentswithsimilarclimates,andprobablywithrathersimilarnaturalresources.Yettheirpresentdevelopmentiswhollydifferent,notsomuchbecauseofdifferentpeopleeven,butbecauseofthedifferentthoughtsthatexistinthemindsoftheirinhabitants.ThisisthepointIwishtoemphasize.Themostimportantfactorinourenvironmentisthestateofourownminds.
Itiswellknownthatwherethewhitemanhasinvadedaprimitiveculturethemostdestructiveeffectshavecomenotfromphysicalweaponsbutfromideas.Ideasaredangerous.TheHolyofficeknewthisfullwellwhenitcausedhereticstobeburnedindaysgoneby.Indeed,theconceptoffreespeechonlyexistsinourmodemsocietybecausewhenyouareinsideacommunityyouareconditionedbytheconventionsofthecommunitytosuchadegreethatitisverydifficulttoconceiveofanythingreallydestructive.Itisonlysomeonelookingonfromoutsidethatcaninjectthedangerousthoughts.Idonotdoubtthatitwouldbepossibletoinjectideasintothemodernworldthatwouldutterlydestroyus.Iwouldliketogiveyouanexample,butfortunatelyIcannotdoso.Perhapsitwillsufficetomentionthenuclearbomb.Imaginetheeffectonareasonablyadvancedtechnologicalsociety,onethatstilldoesnotpossessthebomb,ofmakingitawareofthepossibility,ofsupplyingsufficientdetailstoenablethethingtobeconstructed.Twentyorthirtypagesofinformationhandedtoanyofthemajorworldpowersaroundtheyear1925wouldhavebeensufficienttochangethecourseofworldhistory.Itisa

strangethought,butIbelieveacorrectone,thattwentyorthirtypagesofideasandinformationwouldbecapableofturningthepresent-dayworldupsidedown,orevendestroyingit.Ihaveoftentriedtoconceiveofwhatthosepagesmightcontain,butofcourseIcannotdosobecauseIamaprisonerofthepresent-dayworld,justasallofyouare.Wecannotthinkoutsidetheparticularpatternsthatourbrainsareconditionedto,or,tobemoreaccurate,wecanthinkonlyaverylittlewayoutside,andthenonlyifweareveryoriginal.
Lesson58
AgiftedAmericanpsychologisthassaid,"Worryisaspasmoftheemotion;themindcatchesholdofsomethingandwillnotletitgo."Itisuselesstoarguewiththemindinthiscondition.Thestrongerthewill,themorefutilethetask.Onecanonlygentlyinsinuatesomethingelseintoitsconvulsivegrasp.Andifthissomethingelseisrightlychosen,ifitisreallyattendedbytheilluminationofanotherfieldofinterest,gradually,andoftenquiteswiftly,theoldunduegriprelaxesandtheprocessofrecuperationandrepairbegins.
Thecultivationofahobbyandnewformsofinterestisthereforeapolicyoffirstimportancetoapublicman.Butthisisnotabusinessthatcanbeundertakeninadayorswiftlyimprovisedbyamerecommandofthewill.Thegrowthofalternativementalinterestsisalongprocess.Theseedsmustbecarefullychosen;theymustfallongoodground;theymustbesedulouslytended,ifthevivifyingfruitsaretobeathandwhenneeded.
Tobereallyhappyandreallysafe,oneoughttohaveatleasttwoorthreehobbies,andtheymustallbereal.Itisnousestartinglateinlifetosay:"Iwilltakeaninterestinthisorthat."Suchanattemptonlyaggravatesthestrainofmentaleffort.Amanmayacquiregreatknowledgeoftopicsunconnectedwithhisdailywork,andyethardlygetanybenefitorrelief.Itisnousedoingwhatyoulike,youhavegottolikewhatyoudo.Broadlyspeaking,humanbeingsmaybedividedintothreeclasses:thosewhoaretoiledtodeath,thosewhoareworriedtodeath,andthosewhoareboredtodeath.Itisnouseofferingthemanuallabourer,tiredoutwithahardweek"ssweatandeffort,thechanceofplayingagameoffootballorbaseballonSaturdayafternoon.Itisnouseinvitingthepoliticianortheprofessionalorbusinessman,whohasbeenworkingorworryingaboutseriousthingsforsixdays,toworkorworryabouttriflingthingsattheweek-end.
Asfortheunfortunatepeoplewhocancommandeverythingtheywant,whocangratifyeverycapriceandlaytheirhandsonalmosteveryobjectofdesireforthemanewpleasure,anewexcitementisonlyanadditionalsatiation.Invaintheyrushfranticallyroundfromplacetoplace,tryingtoescapefromavengingboredombymereclatterandmotion.Forthemdisciplineinoneformoranotheristhemosthopefulpath.
Itmayalsobesaidthatrational,industrious,usefulhumanbeingsaredividedintotwoclasses:first,thosewhoseworkisworkandwhosepleasureispleasure;andsecondly,thosewhoseworkandpleasureareone.Ofthesetheformerarethemajority.Theyhavetheircompensations.Thelonghoursintheofficeorthefactorybringwiththemastheirreward,notonlythemeansofsustenance,butakeenappetiteforpleasureeveninitssimplestandmostmodestforms.Butfortune"sfavouredchildrenbelongtothesecondclass.Theirlifeisanaturalharmony.Forthemtheworkinghoursareneverlongenough.Eachdayisaholiday,andordinaryholidayswhentheycomearegrudgedasenforcedinterruptionsinanabsorbingvocation.Yettobothclassestheneedofanalternativeoutlook,ofachangeofatmosphere,ofadiversionofeffort,isessential.Indeed,itmaywellbethatthosewhoseworkistheirpleasurearethosewhomostneedthemeansof

banishingitatintervalsfromtheirminds.
Lesson59
Economyisonepowerfulmotiveforcamping,sinceaftertheinitialoutlayuponequipment,orthroughhiringit,thetotalexpensecanbefarlessthanthecostofhotels.But,contrarytoapopularassumption,itisfarfrombeingtheonlyone,oreventhegreatest.ThemanwhomanoeuvrescarelesslyintohisfiveshillingsworthofspaceatoneofEurope"smyriadpermanentsitesmayfindhimselfbumpingaBentley.Morelikely,FordConsulwillbehubtohubwithRenaultorMercedes,butrarelywithbicyclesmadefortwo.
Thattheequipmentofmoderncampingbecomesyearlymoresophisticatedisanentertainingparadoxforthecynic,abrighterpromiseforthehopefultravelerwhohassworntogetawayfromitall.Italsoprovides--andsomestudentsociologistmightcaretobasehisthesisuponthephenomenon--anescapeofanotherkind.ThemoderntravellerisoftenamanwhodislikestheSplendideandtheBellavista,notbecausehecannotafford,orshuns,theirmeterialcomforts,butbecauseheisafraidofthem.Affluenthemaybe,butheisbynomeanssurewhat,totipthedoormanorthechambermaid.Masterinhisownhouse,hehaslittleideaofwhentosaybootoamaitred"hotel.*Fromallsuchfearscampingreleaseshim.Granted,asnobberyofcampingitself,baseduponequipmentandtechniques,alreadyexists,butitisofakindthat,ifhemeetsit,hecanreadilyunderstandanddealwith.Thereisnosuperior"they"intheshapeofmanagementsandhotelhierarchiestodarkenhisholidaydays.
Tosuchmotives,yetanothermustbeadded.Thecontemporaryphenomenonofmotor-carworshipistobeexplainednotleastbythesenseofindependenceandfreedomthatownershipentails.Tothispleasurecampinggivesanexquisiterefinement.
Fromone"sownfrontdoortohomeorforeignhillsorsandsandbackagain,everythingistohand.Notonlyarethemeansofarrivingattheholidayparadiseentirelywithinone"sowncommandandkeeping,butthemeansofescapefromholidayhell(ifthebeachprovestoocrowded,thelocalweathertooinclementarethere,outside--or,aslikely,partof--thetent.
Idealistshaveobjectedtothepracticeofcamping,astothepackagedtour,thatthetravellerabroadtherebydenieshimselftheopportunityofgettingtoknowthepeopleofthecountryvisited.Insularityandself-containment,itisargued,gohandinhand.TheopiniondoesnotsurviveexperienceofapopularContinentalcampingplace.Holidayhotelstendtocaterforonenationalityofvisitorsespecially,sometimesexclusively.Campingsites,bycontrast,arehighlycosmopolitan.Granted,apreponderanceofGermansisacharacteristicthatseemscommontomostMediterraneansites;butasyetthereisnooverwhelminglyspecializedpatronage.Noticesforbiddingtheopen-airdryingofclothes,ortheuseofwaterpointsforcarwashing,orthoseinviting"ourcampingfriends"toadanceoraboattripareprintednotonlyinFrenchorItalianorSpanish,butalsoinEnglish,GermanandDutch.Atmealtimestheodourofsauerkrautvieswiththatofgarlic.TheFrenchman"sbreakfastcoffeecompeteswiththeEnglishman"sbaconandeggs.Whethertheremarkablegrowthoforganizedcampingmeanstheeventualdeathofthemoreindependentkindishardtosay.Municipalitiesnaturallywanttosecurethecampers"sitefeesandothercustom.Policearewaryofitinerantswhocannotbetracedtoarecognizedcampboundaryortofourwalls.Butmostprobablyitwillalldependuponcampersthemselves:howmanyheathfirestheycause,howmuchlittertheyleave,inshort,whetherornottheywhollyalienatelandownersandthosewholiveinthecountryside.Onlygoodscoutingislikelytopreservethe

freedomssodeartotheheartoftheeternalBoyScout.
Lesson60
Althoughtruthandjusticemaybethemostpowerfulimpulsestoshowmoralcourage,thereareothers.Compassionisoneofthese.Tentativelyitcanbesuggestedthatthisisthemaininfluenceuponthosewhourgetheabolitionofcapitalpunishment.Itisrecognitionofcompassion"spartthatleadstheupholdersofcapitalpunishmenttoaccusetheabolitionistsofsentimentalityinbeingmoresorryforthemurdererthanforhisvictim.ThisisnonsensebutwithitsomeorgansofthepopularPressplayedupontheemotionsoftheirreaderssosuccessfullythatmanycandidatesforParliamentwereafraidtosupportabolitionforfearoflosingvotesandtheresultwasthemuddle-headedHomicideActof1957whichmademurderwithrobberyacapitalcrimeandallowedthepoisonertoescapethegallows.Thatillogicalqualificationshowshowflimsyistheargumentthatcapitalpunishmentisadeterrenttomurder.Thepoisoneralwaysworksonacalculatedplanofactionandthereforeisabletoconsiderwhetherornothistakinganother"slifeisworththeriskofhisown;theviolentthiefisusuallyatthemercyofaninstantemotion.Theonlyarguablepleaforcapitalpunishmentistherightofsocietytoretributioninthisworldwiththeprospectoflifeinanother,butsincewhatusedtoseemtothegreatmajorityofcivilizedhumanitytheassuranceofanotherlifebeyondthegravehascometoseemtomoreandmorepeoplelesscertain,afeelingforthevalueofhumanlifehasbecomedeeperandmorewidespread.Thismayseemaparadoxicalclaimtomakeatatimewhenmankindissomuchpreoccupiedwithweaponsofdestruction.Nevertheless,itisaclaimthatcanbesustainedandifcompassionanimatesthosewhourgetheabolitionofthedeathpenaltyitisnotasentimentalcompassionforthementalagonyinflicteduponacondemnedmanbutadreadofdestroyingthemiracleoflife.
Whenintheeighteenthcenturyoffencesagainstthelawthattodaywouldnoearnamonthinprisonwerepunishedwiththedeathpenalty,theseverityofthepenalcodehadnoseriouseffectontheprevalenceofcrime.Whenitmadenodifferencetothefateofahighwaymanwhetherhehadkilledhisvictimormerelyrobbedhimofafewpiecesofsilver,therewerenomoremurdersthenthantherewerewhenmenlikeSirFraricisBurdettsucceededinlighteningtheexcessiveseverityofthepenallaws.Inthosedaysthesacrednessoflifeonearthwasnotgreatlyregardedbecausealifeintheworldtocomewastakenforgrantedexceptbyacomparativelysmallminotityofphilosophers.
Norwasthelong-drawnordealofthecondemnedcellinflictedeitheruponthecondemnedmanorhisgaolersonceuponatime.Thosewhobelieveincapitalpunishmentmayhaveargumentsforitsretention,butsurelynoreasonableargumentcanbefoundforretentionofthesickeningmumbo-jumbothataccompaniesitfromthemomentthatthejudgedonstheblackcapwithwhatlookslikeapen-wiperbalancedonthetopofhiswig,tothereadingoftheburialserviceoverthecondemnedmanbeforeheisdead.Moreover,itwasmoremercifultolaunchthecondemnedmanintoeternitytwenty-fourhoursafterhewassentencedthantokeephimshiveringonthebrinkofthatdreadgulffornearlythreeweeks.Hangingisanatrociouslyarchaicwayofkillingahumanbeingandtheself-satisfiedmodernityoftheelectricchairisjustasatrocious.Theadministrationofastrongsleepingdraughttothecondemnedmaneverynightfromwhichonenighthedoeshotawake,seemsamorecivilizedalternativetoourpresentbarbarousprocedure,ifcapitalpunishmentthroughtheinfluenceofbackwardmindsberetained.

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